Prudence

WHAT PRUDENCE IS

What is prudence?

Saint Thomas Aquinas defines prudence in his Summa Theologiae (II-IIae, q47, a8) succinctly as:

right reason applied to action.

Father Duffner, OP, says:

Prudence is a virtue that directs reason to choose rightly the proper means to attain the end in view (i.e. the Will of God). It is the most important of all the moral virtues, for it directs all the other virtues in choosing the proper means in attaining their respective goals. Without this virtue one will not choose well nor live rightly as regards the final goal of his life. It is not enough to want to do good, one must know the means he must choose to achieve that good.

Father Saunders puts it this way:

Prudence, the "mother" of all of the virtues, is the virtue by which a person recognizes his moral duty and the good means to accomplish it. Actually, prudence is part of the definition of goodness. A person can be prudent and good only simultaneously. No other virtue can contradict what is prudent. Therefore, what is prudent is substantially what is good, and prudence is the measure of justice, temperance and fortitude.

Since it makes it easier for the intellect to discern choices, prudence is an intellectual virtue. Moreover, it helps the will to choose the good, for which reason it is also a moral virtue.

Doug Macmanaman explains

A moral virtue is a habit that makes its possessor good. One may be brilliant and learned without being morally good, but it is not possible to be prudent and not morally good. The prudent man is one who does the good, as opposed to one who merely knows the good. There are many moral philosophers and theologians around, but prudent persons are probably not as common. It is much easier to talk about virtue — including prudence — than it is to actually be virtuous. And one who does not behave well cannot be said to be prudent, even though he happens to be very learned.

Is prudence a human (or acquired) virtue, or is it a supernatural (or infused) virtue?

Prudence can be acquired by practice. There are many non-Catholics, non-Christians or even non-believers who have acquired a human kind of prudence. It helps them choose what is humanly and reasonably good. When a person is in the state of grace, however, this virtue is further perfected and raised to a supernatural level. Fr Duffner explains:

On the purely natural plane, prudence is acquired by repeated acts, as are all acquired virtues. Natural prudence dictates the means to be used to attain man's end as known by the light of reason. It does not take into consideration any of the revealed truths known by faith. This virtue is not characteristic of the young, for they have not had time to acquire it. It is the fruit of a certain number of years and experience. Even though the very young (baptized) have sanctifying grace and the infused virtues, they have not attained the use of reason, nor advanced in the acquired virtues.

On the supernatural level prudence is infused at baptism with the other infused virtues, and dictates the means to be used to attain man's end known by the light of reason enlightened by faith, the eternal possession of God through the beatific vision. It is supernatural prudence (Christian prudence) that we are mainly concerned about here. The characteristics of this important virtue will become more clear by contrasting it with natural acquired prudence, and with false notions of this virtue.

The difference between acquired and infused prudence is not simply a matter of degree, but of nature, just as the supernatural order (which brings a share in the very life of God) is infinitely superior to the natural order. Because of this, at times supernatural prudence will dictate a course of action that would not be recommended by natural prudence, e.g. to forego marriage for the sake of the priesthood or the religious life, or to fast in reparation for sin, or to give one's life in defense of one's faith in Christ.

Christian prudence is ever at odds with the wisdom of the world. It does not judge things solely by the satisfactions or pleasures they afford, nor the material gains they bring (though these can be good in themselves), but seeing them in the light of faith it makes sure they do not obscure or lead away from our eternal goal. It is ever mindful of the question asked by Saint Bernard: “Quid hoc ad aeternitatem?” What is the value of this for eternity?

What steps are required for prudent action?

In order to practice prudence, one needs to:

1. deliberate on the various means of attaining the desired end;
2. judge or decide the means or action to be taken or not taken;
3. command that the means decided upon be put into effect.

To command is the principal act of prudence. Deliberation and judgment only prepare the way. True prudence requires courage and promptness.

What elements are required for these steps? What are the integral parts of prudence?

The elements required for these steps are called the integral parts of prudence. They are prerequisites for prudence’s proper operation. There are eight of these requirements: five refer to the intellectual deliberation, and three to the implementation of the decision reached. These are:

1. Clear knowledge of the present, understanding the situation and the moral principles to be applied; this is a sharpness of mind to have a true picture of the facts. With regard to the knowledge of moral principles to be applied, Doug McManaman says:
   1. Prudence begins with an understanding of the first principles of practical reason, which St. Thomas calls synderesis. Synderesis is a natural habit by which we are inclined to a number of ends. Now the good is the object of desire. Hence, the objects of these inclinations are goods. And since these goods are not outside the human person, but are aspects of the human person, they are called human goods.
   2. There are a number of human goods to which every human person is naturally inclined. These goods are not known by the senses, but by the intellect, and so they are desired not by the sense appetite, but primarily by the will (the rational appetite), thus they are not sensible goods, but intelligible goods. These intelligible human goods include human life, the knowledge of truth, the intellectual apprehension and enjoyment of beauty, leisure (play and art), sociability, religion, integrity, and marriage.
2. Memory (Memoria) Prudence requires us to remember the past, so as not to repeat mistakes previously made. Our experience gives us more criteria for deliberation and judgment.
3. Docility (Docilitas) is eagerness to learn from others, an open-mindedness, which makes the person receptive to the advice and counsel of other people, especially those who are older, more experienced and more knowledgeable.
4. Shrewdness or Sagacity (Solertia), is a quick conjecture about the means to be used to reach an end; this is facility in connecting ideas, and promptness to decide on urgent matters. McManaman explains:
   1. Shrewdness is the ability to quickly size up a situation on one’s own, and so it involves the ability to pick up small clues and run with them. The shrewd are highly intuitive, subtle and discreet. ... The shrewd are also able to detect evil behind a mask of goodness, so as to be able to plan accordingly. Some people are dangerously unsuspecting of the motives of evil and so they miss the clues that suggest a more ominous picture. For we tend to see in others what we see in ourselves, and if our motives are good, it is hard to suspect others of malice. Moreover, excessive empathy has a way of clouding the intuitive light of solertia (Greek: phronimos).
   2. But just as memory and docility presuppose a good will (right appetite), so too does shrewdness. It can be the case that the inability to see is rooted in a will not to see; for sometimes people would rather not think about what the clues could mean for fear of what they might discover about someone, which in turn will affect their security in some way. As the old saying goes: “There are none so blind as those who will not see”. It can also be the case that a person has not learned to listen to his intuition or perhaps confuses a negative intuition with judging the heart of another and so dismisses his intuitive insights, especially negative ones. On the other hand, it is possible that a person wants to see evil where there really is none. This is not shrewdness, but suspicion, and it is often rooted in a spirit of pride.
5. Reasoning. McManaman says:
   1. Once a person sizes up a particular situation, he needs to be able to investigate and compare alternative possibilities and to reason well from premises to conclusions. He will need to be able to reason about what needs to be done, that is, what the best alternative or option is that will realize the right end. Prudence thus presupposes a knowledge of the basics of logical reasoning. If a person cannot see through the most common logical fallacies, he will unlikely be able to consistently make prudent decisions. Some of these common fallacies include:
      • Begging the Question, or assuming the point that needs to be proven, or
      • Ignoring the Question, which consists in proving something other than the point to be established.
      • False Cause consists in assuming that when one event precedes another, it is the cause of the succeeding event.
      • The Fallacy of Part and Whole consists in attributing to a whole what belongs only to its parts (the fallacy of generalization), while the
      • Fallacy of Misplaced Authority consists in concluding that something is true because somebody of authority, such as a medical doctor, said it.
      • The Fallacy of Ad Hominem (directed to the man) involves the rejection of some person's position not by virtue of the argument itself, but by virtue of some unlikeable aspect of the person.
      • The Fallacy of the Double Standard consists in applying one standard for one group or individual, and another standard for an opposing group or individual.
      • Appeal to the People occurs when a speaker attempts to get some group to agree to a particular position by appealing solely to their bigotry, biases, and prejudices or, in some cases, merely to their desire to hear what they already believe.
      • The Fallacy of False Analogy occurs when a person argues a position merely by drawing an analogy, without justifying the use of the analogy.
      • The Fallacy of Novelty assumes that what is new and current is necessarily better or an improvement upon what is older.
   2. The more adept one becomes at seeing through such deceptive reasoning, the less likely will one’s decisions fall under its influence.
6. Providence or Foresight, a consideration and forecasting of future events; this is the ability to anticipate and the foresight to prepare for the future. Taking again from McManaman:
   1. Foresight is the principal part of prudence, for the name itself (prudence) is derived from the Latin "providentia", which means “foresight”. Foresight involves rightly ordering human acts to the right end. This of course presupposes that the person is ordered to the right end, which is the possession of God through knowledge and love. The greater his love for God, that is, the greater his charity, the greater will be his foresight: “Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall see God” (Mt. 5, 8). For it is through charity that one attains God, and it is through this supernatural friendship that one grows in a connatural knowledge of God. The more a person is familiar with the city towards which he directs his steps, the more able he is to see which roads lead to that end and which roads lead away. The more a person is familiar with God, the more readily able he is to discern behaviour inconsistent with that friendship. An impure heart, that is, a love of God mixed with an inordinate love of self, will affect one’s ability to “see”. An inordinate love of self will cause certain alternatives to have greater appeal, but these alternatives (means) will not necessarily lead to the right end. A prudent man sees that, but the imprudent do not. And if they lack true to being memory, they will continue to fail to see it.
7. Circumspection, a careful consideration of the circumstances. McManaman explains:
   1. It is possible that acts good in themselves and suitable to the end may become unsuitable in virtue of new circumstances. Circumspection is the ability to take into account all relevant circumstances. Showing affection to your spouse through a kiss is good in itself, but it might be unsuitable in certain circumstances, such as a funeral or in a public place. Telling certain jokes might be appropriate in one setting, but inappropriate in another. Circumspection is the ability to discern which is which. This too, however, presupposes right appetite. A person lacking proper restraint (temperance) will lack thoughtfulness and the ability to consider how the people around him might be made to feel should he take a certain course of action. The lustful, for example, lack counsel and tend to act recklessly. An egoist is also less focused on others and more on himself, and so he too tends to lack proper circumspection.
8. Caution in avoiding the obstacles and evils that could come up. As McManaman writes:
   1. Good choices can often generate bad effects. To choose not to act simply because bad consequences will likely ensue is contrary to prudence. But caution takes care to avoid those evils that are likely to result from a good act that we contemplate doing. For example, a priest who is about to speak out publicly against a piece of unjust legislation might anticipate offending members of his congregation. Out of cowardice or an inordinate love of comfort, he might choose not to say anything at all and thus risk harming others through his silence. A prudent priest, on the other hand, will speak out when not doing so will harm others, yet caution will move him to prepare his congregation with a thorough preamble so as to minimize the chances of misunderstanding. One must never do evil that good may come of it, but one may at times permit evil on condition that the action one is performing is good or indifferent, that one does not will or intend the evil effect, and that the good effects of one’s action are sufficiently desirable to compensate for the allowing of the evil effect.

What are the virtues annexed to prudence? What are the potential parts of prudence?

Potential parts are annexed virtues that are concerned with secondary acts or matters. The potential parts of prudence are:

1. Good counsel or Euboulia is the habit of seeking right counsel. Mcmanaman tells us:
   1. Counsel is research into the various means to the end and the circumstances. A person not entirely pure of heart, that is, whose charity is very defective, will have more options before him, poorer options that nevertheless have some appeal. The better the character, the less will these poorer options present themselves; for they will drop out of the picture very quickly. This can be compared to a person who is physically healthy and has good eating habits and one who is unhealthy with poor habits. A typical menu will be more appealing to the one with poor eating habits, while the former deliberates over a few options, the healthier options on the menu. We’ve all heard the expression, “Where there is a will, there is a way”. Good counsel, resulting from a greater hope in and love for God, generates the energy and imagination needed to discover the best alternative to achieve the best end.
2. Good judgment: Synesis, or good sense is the virtue of judging aright according to ordinary rules. Mcmanaman explains:
   1. Synesis is good common sense in making judgments about what to do and what not to do in ordinary matters. It is possible to take good counsel without having good sense so as to judge well, but to judge well on what to do or not to do in the here and now requires a right mind, that is, an understanding of first principles and precepts and indirectly a just will and well disposed appetites (both concupiscible and irascible appetites). Without these, one’s ideas will likely be distorted, and one’s judgment regarding the best means will be defective; for as Aristotle points out, as a person is (character), so does he see.
3. Good judgment: Gnome is the virtue of judging aright from the higher principles; the unbiased judgment or the sense of making proper exception, being able to distinguish those cases that go out of common norms. Epikeia is a virtue intimately related to this. McManaman says:
   1. Gnome refers to the ability to discern and apply higher laws to matters that fall outside the scope of the more common or lower rules that typically guide human action. It involves good judgment regarding exceptions to ordinary rules. For example, students ordinarily are not permitted to play walkmans in a classroom, but a possible exception to the rule might be the case of a student with a serious learning disability and who is highly sensitive to the slightest distractions. One may be able to think of similar examples on a more judicial level.
4. Command: other authors include this one. Mcmanaman comments:
   1. Command, which is the direct application of good counsel and judgment, is the principal act of prudence; for it cannot be said that one who takes good counsel and judges well, but fails to act, is a prudent man.

WHAT PRUDENCE IS NOT

Following is the explanation from Fr Duffner:

True Christian prudence which directs the various virtues in choosing the means to attain man's final end, requires that both the means and the end are good. This would exclude those who convince themselves that the use of contraceptives is the prudent thing to do in this situation, and those who think it is better not to bring to birth the unborn child known to be deformed. Saint Paul referred to such as these in his Epistle to the Romans: “The wisdom of the flesh is hostile to God, for it is not subject to the law of God, nor can it be.” (8:7)

Too, merely human prudence is not Christian prudence: for example, the one who seeks out the best means to attain a purely natural end (good in itself) without referring it to his final end. Such is the prudence of the masters of industry, of the arts, of politics, etc. who gain renown, but are unconcerned about God’s laws and eternity. These people pay no heed to the Lord’s words: “What does it profit a man to gain the whole world, but suffer the loss of his own soul?” (Mark 8:36)

Christian prudence is not to be identified with excessive solicitude for temporal goods or future events, which designates a lack of confidence in divine providence. Also lacking in this Christian virtue is the one who, while keeping in mind the final goal of his life, deliberates carefully and makes a judgment as to the best means to use, but because of hesitancy or timidity or excessive worry, fails to carry that judgment into action. Such a one has omitted the most import part of prudence - the command to act.

Then, there are those who dissent from the official teaching of the Church, following the recommendation, “Let your conscience be your guide,” as if the Holy Spirit would enlighten one interiorly in a way that contradicts the same Holy Spirit guiding the authoritative teaching of the Church. Father Jordan Aumann, O.P. speaking of ways to foster the growth of Christian prudence, states: “There is nothing that so prevents the Holy Spirit from operating in us as does an independent and insubordinate spirit.” (Spiritual Theology, P. 280)

Again, if prudence, while guiding the virtue of temperance, allows the use of the good things of this world (the use of which temperance should moderate) in an excessive way, such is not Christian prudence. Likewise, if prudence, in guiding the virtue of justice (which is concerned about rights), is concerned only about the rights of man, not the rights of God, or only the rights of the individual and not the rights of society, or vice versa, such are not true Christian prudence.

HOW ONE SINS AGAINST PRUDENCE

Fr Saunders explains:

Contrary vices to prudence include precipitance (acting impulsively), inconstancy (changing resolutions too quickly), negligence and losing sight of one’s supernatural destiny, namely eternal life. Perhaps the last vice is most prevalent today: too many people act without regard to their eternal judgment and without setting their sights on Heaven. The prudent person seeks to always do what is good in the eyes of God so as one day to be joined to His everlasting goodness in Heaven. After all, Jesus asked, "What profit would a man show if he were to gain the whole world and destroy himself in the process?" (Mt 16:26).

1. The sin opposed to prudence by defect is imprudence. There are four kinds of imprudence:
   • Precipitation or Impetuosity. McManaman explains:
     • Impetuosity is the vice contrary to good counsel and amounts to a failure to adequately consider all available means to a particular end. Consider the teenager who is tempted to skip class, or lie for something or other, or become sexually intimate with someone. Rather than thinking things through and considering other alternatives, he skips a major test, or lies to get out of it, or immediately surrenders to the temptation to be sexually intimate for fear that further consideration will ruin the prospects. Impetuosity often results from an impulsive will or inordinate sense appetite, or from contempt for a directive (i.e., contempt for one's parents or the Church). Impetuosity is a defect of memory, docility, and reasoning.
   • Thoughtlessness, or lack of consideration of all circumstances, which always follows the former. Mcmanaman writes:
     • Thoughtlessness is a defect of practical judgment and amounts to a defect of circumspection and caution. Consider the young person who curses in a public place, totally unaware of how his actions might affect others, or the young girl who, caught up in the excitement of having an older student take interest in her, gets into his car and drives off with him. Thoughtfulness, on the other hand, is a necessary condition of gratitude, which in turn is a prerequisite of the virtue of justice.
   • Inconstancy. Mcmanaman says:
     • Inconstancy is contrary to command, the principal act of prudence, and is a failure to complete a morally good act by refusing to command that an act be done, a refusal rooted in inordinate love of pleasure. Consider the person who just can't get around to doing what he knows ought to be done, because of laziness or attachment to some pleasure.
   • Negligence. McManaman writes:
     • Negligence is also contrary to command, but it differs in that it is a defect on the part of the intellect to direct the will in carrying out some good action. These vices involve a defect in understanding, foresight, and shrewdness.
2. All these arise from lust, which darkens the judgment of reason, due to excessive attachment to material things. Envy and anger may also be factors.
3. The sins opposed to prudence by excess are:
   • Prudence of the flesh, or ignoring supernatural considerations;
   • Cunning, which leads to deceit and fraud; and
   • Anxiety for temporal things and for the future.
4. All these take their origin from avarice, which makes one put his heart in the things of this world: money, and the like.

THE HUMAN AND DIVINE: PERSONAL STRUGGLE AND THE GIFT OF COUNSEL

Fr Duffner explains the need for human effort on one hand and the assistance of the Holy Spirit on the other. One of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit is particularly important for this cardinal virtue: the Gift of Counsel.

When one considers the weaknesses of the acquired virtues, he should not be discouraged, for the virtue of prudence has a powerful aid in the Gift of Counsel, the Gift of the Holy Spirit that perfects that virtue. If there is good will, in spite of the various weaknesses, the Holy Spirit does at times (in answer to prayer) make us understand in an instant the proper course of action. However, the Holy Spirit will not do it all. His grace can work miracles in human hearts, but it depends on our cooperation with His grace. The more one tries through prayer and mortification to remedy the weak areas, the more this Gift develops making us more responsive to the inspirations of the Holy Spirit.

However, so often we are unaware of His indwelling presence and His quiet reminders. Reasons for this can be:

1. we are so distracted and deafened by the noises and attractions of the world, and
2. we are so attached to our own judgment, which can be a source of self-deception, being convinced that we are moved by supernatural motives, when in reality it could be personal interest.

If one feels stalled at a mediocre level, prayer is needed to see the obstacles that stand in the way, and for courage to apply discipline where it is needed. True progress does not mean that one feels he is captain of the ship - in full control; but rather it brings a greater realization of how utterly dependent on God one is, and needful of His help to continue the uphill battle against the world, the flesh and the devil. We must never forget we are not fighting this battle alone. The Holy Spirit is always ready to help with His actual graces and Gifts that perfect the infused virtues. But frequent prayer is necessary to keep one mindful of this and to persevere in one’s efforts. “I prayed, and prudence was given me; I pleaded, and the Spirit of Wisdom came to me.” (Wisdom 7:7)

FURTHER READING

• Fr William Saunders, Prudence: Mother of All Virtues (http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/religion/re0530.html)
• Donald de Marco, Prudence (http://catholiceducation.org/articles/religion/re0809.html)
• Doug Mcmanaman, The Virtue of Prudence (http://catholiceducation.org/articles/education/ed0282.html)
• Fr Paul A Duffner, OP, The Virtue of Christian Prudence (http://www.copiosa.org/virtue/virtue_prudence.htm)
• The Catholic Encyclopedia, Prudence (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12517b.htm)