Cabling

NIC

Stands for "Network Interface Card." Pronounced "nick," this is the card that physically makes the connection between the computer and the network cable. These cards typically use an Ethernet connection and are available in 10, 100, and 1000 Base-T configurations. A 100 Base-T card can transfer data at 100 Mbps. The cards come in ISA and PCI versions and are made by companies like 3Com and LinkSys. So if you want to connect your computer to a network, you better get yourself a NIC.

(techterms.com n.d.)

 The OSI Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer (OSI layer 2) contains two sub-layers; the Logical Link Control (LLC), and the Media Access Control (MAC). IEEE specification 802.2 defines the LLC, while the IEEE specifications 802.3 and 802.5 define the MAC for Ethernet and Token Ring.

ll hosts on a network, including network devices such as printers and routers, must have a unique identifier called theMedia Access Control address. The Data Link layer uses MAC addresses is to pass data frames from the Physical layer to the Network layer and vice versa. The use of MAC addresses permits the direction of data within the same network, but not across routers.

(Bucaro n.d.)

Definition: RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are most commonly seen with Ethernet cables and networks.

RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable interface electrically. Standard RJ-45 pinoutsdefine the arrangement of the individual wires needed when attaching connectors to a cable.

Several other kinds of connectors closely resemble RJ45 and can be easily confused for each other. The RJ-11 connectors used with telephone cables, for example, are only slightly smaller (narrower) than RJ-45 connectors.

Also Known As: Registered Jack 45

(Mitchell 2015)

(www.bb-elec.com n.d.)

The TIA/EIA 568B straight through cable consists of four pairs of twisted pair lines. These ethernet cables can be shielded twisted pairs (STP); screened twisted pairs (ScTP); or most commonly, unshielded twisted pairs (UTP). The twisted pairs serve to cancel out the any RF/EM (radio-frequency/electromagnetic) noise through the lines.

CAT3 vs. CAT5 vs. CAT5e vs. CAT6 vs. CAT6e vs. CAT6a vs. CAT7While the consumer electronics keep going increasingly wireless, many LANs still rely heavily on CAT cables to handle all the heavy lifting when it comes to transmitting data. To begin with, all Ethernet cables are of two key varieties i.e. UTP (unshielded twisted pair) or STP (Shielded twisted pair) variety. They all have the same construction structure, but vary a great deal as far as transmission frequency and throughput are concerned.However, some terms need to be defined before any meaningful comparison can be presented:How to interpret Ethernet cable Speed?10 Mbps = 1.2 MB / s i.e. 1 hour to download a DVD (4.5 GB)100 Mbps = 12 MB/s i.e. 1 hour to download 10 DVDs (assuming 4.5 GB average)1.0 Gbps = 125 MB/s i.e. 1 hour to download 100 DVDs (assuming 4.5 GB average)10 Gbps = 1.25 Gbps i.e. 1 hour to download 1000 DVDs (assuming 4.5 GB average)What is Frequency?Imagine you can only drive two cars, one passenger each, at a given time on a highway in each of the two lanes. Now you would be able to transfer more people over the same highway if you can drive the same two cars 500 trips per day compared to 250 trips per day.Now imagine the same analogy but replace cars with bits of data. So if you can only drive two bits on a given data-line then 100 Mhz (or 100 million cycles per second) will give more bandwidth (i.e. ability to transfer data over the same line) then 50 Mhz (or 50 Million cycles per second).CAT3The Category 3 or CAT3 standard was used heavily in the early 90′s for wiring offices and homes. It’s still used in two-line phone configurations, but has largely fallen out of favor for wired networking thanks to the Category 5e cable’s superior performance. CAT3 can be relied on to handle data speeds of up to 10 Mbps, but no more. Its maximum frequency clocks in at 16 MHz. Like many other cabling options, it relies on copper for data and power transmission. While theoretically limited to 10BASE-T Ethernet, it can actually support 100BASE-T4 speeds by using 4 wires instead of 2 to achieve 100 Mbps throughput.CAT5CAT5 CutoutAround 2000 or so, CAT5 overtook CAT3 as the Ethernet cable of choice for LAN networking. CAT5 uses either the 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T standard for data transmission. Using two cable pairs to signal over copper wire, CAT5 is now largely archaic and isn’t widely used for Ethernet connections. It’s rated for a maximum frequency of 100 MHz and top speeds of 100 Mbps. CAT5 uses 8P8C modular connectors to connect devices together, and can be used effectively at lengths of up to 100 meters. Today, CAT5 cable has been replaced for the most part by CAT5e.CAT5eShielded Twisted PairWhile very similar to CAT5 in appearance, CAT5e introduces some new wrinkles in the equation. For one thing, CAT5e uses four pairs of copper wire rather than the two that CAT5 relies on. In addition, the wire pairs are twisted more tightly and are sheathed in heavy-duty shielding to eliminate crosstalk. Crosstalk cuts down on the speed at which a cable can transmit information. Thanks to its internal upgrades, CAT5e is capable of achieving 1000BASE-T speeds. In other words, it can handle up to 1 Gbps of throughput at a distance of up to 100 meters. As of today, it’s the most common type of cabling found in modern homes and offices for Ethernet purposes.CAT6Compare the Twists per Inch for CAT5 and CAT6e CableFor back-end, high-capacity networking, CAT6 supports Gigabit Ethernet needs. Supporting frequencies of up to 250 MHz and the 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T, and 10GBASE-T standards, it can handle up to 10 Gbps in terms of throughput. Thanks to better cable insulation, CAT6 reduces potential crosstalk even more so than CAT5e. When used for Gigabit Ethernet and below, the maximum allowable cable length is 100 meters. For 10GBASE-T speeds, the maximum cable length is 55 meters. The one major caveat of CAT6 cables is that installation can be tricky, as compatibility with 8P8C requires the use of special adapter pieces for optimal performance.CAT6e or Enhanced CAT6These are an enhancement on the standard CAT6 cables, as they perform much better when installed in an environment with high noise or RF interference. While better than CAT6, they are not as good as the CAT6a or CAT6 Augmented standard cables.CAT5 CAT6 CAT3 ComparisonIf you’re wiring up your home or office for Ethernet for the long haul, CAT6a is the perfect choice in terms of future-proofing. When it comes to A/V protocols, CAT6a is supposed to replace HDMI in the coming years. The main difference between CAT6a and CAT6 is that CAT6a can operate at a frequency of up to 750 MHz. In addition, CAT6a is even less susceptible to interference and crosstalk. The improved specification and shielding allows CAT6a to provide more consistently reliable speeds in difficult environments. Thanks to its performance and stability, CAT6a is the preferred cable for 10GBASE-T Ethernet.Cat 7 and BeyondThe list of Ethernet options doesn’t stop at CAT6a. There’s also a version called CAT7 that’s even more capable than all of the TP cable variants listed above. CAT7, also known as Class F cable, supports transmission frequencies of up to 600 MHz. It supports 10GBASE-T Ethernet over a full 100 meters, and it features improved crosstalk noise reduction. While CAT6e is the current standard when it comes to 10GBASE-T, it will inevitably be replaced with CAT7. Nobody knows what the future holds for Ethernet cables or what will come next in terms of format or performance. No matter what happens, expect faster and faster cables with each passing year as the technology and protocols that support Ethernet continue to improve. Finally, one thing to always keep in mind is that any custom cable can be built to suit the application on any project.

Coaxial Cable is also widely used in the telecommunications industry, such as the telephone system where coax reaches the pole or drop nearest to the subscriber’s house, and a twisted-pair cable comes into the house and to the telephone.

In contrast to twisted-pair wires, coaxial has the capacity to transmit information 80 times faster, has much higher bandwidth, offers greater protection from noise and interference and can support greater cable lengths between network devices. Coaxial cable also offers relatively high immunity to interference from noise sources, so it is often used in manufacturing environments.top of page

Coaxial Cable Physical Properties

Coaxial cable is called "coaxial" because it includes one physical channel that carries the signal surrounded (after a layer of insulation) by another concentric physical channel, both running along the same axis. Data is transmitted through the center channel, while the outer channel serves as a line to ground. These two conductors usually carry equal currents in opposite directions.

Inner / Center Conductor

Depending upon the application, many different types of conductor constructions may be found in coaxial cables.

Outer Conductor / Shielding 

In coaxial applications, shielding is an important part of the overall composition of the cable. Shielding not only protects the loss of signal in high frequency application, but also helps to prevent EMI (electromagnetic interference) and RFI (radio frequency interference) in the circuit. There are three popular types of shielding: braid and foil/braid.

Outer plastic cover / Jacket

The outer plastic cover found on most coaxial cables is commonly called the jacket. The main function of the jacket is for protection from the environment and as an additional form of insulation. The compounds used to make the jacket may have different temperature ratings. The temperature rating of a cable, along with the location rating (i.e. plenum, wet, sunlight resistant etc.) will determine the minimum or maximum operating temperature of the cable. In today’s multi-application world, many jacketing choices exist:

Additional Information

The construction of coaxial cable is designed to keep a distance between the inner conductor and the outer shield, which is one factor in determining the impedance rating of the cable. Just like all electrical components, coaxial cables have characteristic impedance. Impedances often become critically important when transmitting high volumes of data at very high rates (frequencies) and various types of coaxial cable are a common way to do this. This impedance depends on the dielectric material and the radii of each conducting material

There are many different forms of coaxial cable; however, they are usually divided into two classifications — those used for baseband transmission, and those used for broadband transmission. The primary distinction between the two cable types is the characteristic impedance. Baseband cable has a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and used for digital transmission mainly in Ethernet networks, while broadband cable impedance is 75 ohms and used for analog transmission like in cable television (CATV) and Cable Internet. Using the wrong cable will cause network problems.

Coaxial cable provides superior noise immunity over conventional twisted pairs. As with other media, its immunity to noise is subject to the impact of variables such as the application and the environment. Baseband systems usually provide immunity of 50 to 60 decibels (dB), while broadband systems operate with 85 to 100 dB.

Many of these cables or pairs of coaxial tubes can be placed in a single outer sheathing and, with repeaters, can carry information for a great distance.top of page

Types of Coaxial Cables

All Coaxial Cables are classified according to the RG/U number which describes cable impedance characteristics. For full list of coaxial cables look HERE.

The most common coaxial cable used today is RG58/U. This coaxial cable will carry signals for distances of up to 300 meters and mostly used in Thinwire Ethernet.

There are also variations of traditional cable which are described below.

(Bykov n.d.) 

A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Communications

Optical communication systems date back to the 1790s, to the optical semaphore telegraph invented by French inventor Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented an optical telephone system, which he called the Photophone. However, his earlier invention, the telephone, was more practical and took tangible shape. The Photophone remained an experimental invention and never materialized. During the 1920s, John Logie Baird in England and Clarence W. Hansell in the United States patented the idea of using arrays of hollow pipes or transparent rods to transmit images for television or facsimile systems.

In 1954, Dutch scientist Abraham Van Heel and British scientist Harold H. Hopkins separately wrote papers on imaging bundles. Hopkins reported on imaging bundles of unclad fibers, whereas Van Heel reported on simple bundles of clad fibers. Van Heel covered a bare fiber with a transparent cladding of a lower refractive index. This protected the fiber reflection surface from outside distortion and greatly reduced interference between fibers.

Abraham Van Heel is also notable for another contribution. Stimulated by a conversation with the American optical physicist Brian O'Brien, Van Heel made the crucial innovation of cladding fiber-optic cables. All earlier fibers developed were bare and lacked any form of cladding, with total internal reflection occurring at a glass-air interface. Abraham Van Heel covered a bare fiber or glass or plastic with a transparent cladding of lower refractive index. This protected the total reflection surface from contamination and greatly reduced cross talk between fibers. By 1960, glass-clad fibers had attenuation of about 1 decibel (dB) per meter, fine for medical imaging, but much too high for communications. In 1961, Elias Snitzer of American Optical published a theoretical description of a fiber with a core so small it could carry light with only one waveguide mode. Snitzer's proposal was acceptable for a medical instrument looking inside the human, but the fiber had a light loss of 1 dB per meter. Communication devices needed to operate over much longer distances and required a light loss of no more than 10 or 20 dB per kilometer.

By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss.

In the summer of 1970, one team of researchers began experimenting with fused silica, a material capable of extreme purity with a high melting point and a low refractive index. Corning Glass researchers Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz invented fiber-optic wire or "optical waveguide fibers" (patent no. 3,711,262), which was capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. The team had solved the decibel-loss problem presented by Dr. Kao. The team had developed an SMF with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium into the fiber core. By June of 1972, Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz invented multimode germanium-doped fiber with a loss of 4 dB per kilometer and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber. By 1973, John MacChesney developed a modified chemical vapor-deposition process for fiber manufacture at Bell Labs. This process spearheaded the commercial manufacture of fiber-optic cable.

In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber cables.

(Alwayn 2004)

Fiber-Optic Internet In the United States

24

NATION-WIDE FIBER COVERAGE

Fiber to the home or FTTH as it is commonly referred to is the gold standard of residential internet connections.

With much of the backbone of the internet deployed using fiber optic cable, it is no surprise that fiber optics are the fastest form of broadband technology.

In fact, the latest deployments by Verizon FiOS and Google Fiberare capable of reaching speeds of 500mbps and 1gbps respectively.

The biggest benefit of fiber is that it can offer much faster speeds over much longer distances than traditional copper-based technologies like DSL and cable. The actual service depends on the company providing the service, but in most cases fiber is the best bang for the buck broadband and future-proof for as long as we can tell. Even if typical broadband speeds become 1000 times faster in 20 years, a single existing fiber-optic connection can still support it.

For more details about the number of fiber optic providers and what communities they serve, we've compiled a full list of a every provider offering fiber optic internet service in the United States.

Should You Get Fiber Optic Internet?

If you have a fiber provider in your area and you are interested in near instantaneous connection speeds then fiber optic is your best bet. We definitely recommend this technology.

Benefits of Fiber Optic Broadband

Transfer lots of data quickly.

Because fiber broadband is the fastest internet available, you can transfer large amounts of data quickly and seamlessly. This means that whether you are watching a movie on Netflix or video chatting with family in Asia or Europe your connection will be seamless and quick (provided they are on fiber too).

Next Generation Technology

Because fiber-optics uses light instead of electricity to transmit data, the frequencies that are used are much higher and the data capacity is much greater. The fiber-optic cable itself is made from glass or plastic which is not susceptible to electromagnetic interference like metal cables. This allows data to flow over great distances without degrading. Interference and energy loss is the limiting factor for all types of communication transmissions and fiber optics handles these factors much better than other modes of transmission. In the future, more and more of our world will be connected via fiber optics as we outgrow the old copper based infrastructures.

Limitations of Fiber

New Infrastructure Requirements

The biggest limitation hindering widespread fiber optic adoption is the cost requirements of implementing new fiber optic lines when old infrastructures such as DSL and cable are still serving customers.

Installing a new fiber optic network is a large capital expenditure for service providers. However, as the cost to maintain aging copper networks increases over time, more and more will choose to upgrade to fiber if not purely for financial reasons. Of course as consumer demand for better and faster broadband increases, service providers will have to install fiber-optic networks to meet that demand. Our mission is to bring that power to the consumer.

(Anderson 2014)