Grammars

There are two types of grammars: reference grammars and student grammars. Student grammars are used while learning a language, while reference grammars are for those already acquainted with a language, who encounter a particular difficulty. The standard BH reference grammar is Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, edited and enlarged by the late E. Kautzsch and translated by A. E. Cowley, first published in 1910 (most recently published by Dover Publications in 2006), which is called "Gesenius" for short.Gesenius is a difficult tool to use. Its language is typically very technical, but dictionaries of linguistic terms, or Todd J. Murphy, Pocket Dictionary for the Study of Biblical Hebrew, or the index and glossary in Marc Zvi Brettler, Biblical Hebrew for Students of Modern Israeli Hebrew, may help clarify unknown terms. It is sometimes worth turning to one of the student grammars to clarify the outlines of a point before attempting to understand the details that Gesenius or another one of the reference grammars is offering.Gesenius is divided into three sections: phonology, morphology and syntax. When citing Gesenius, it is the convention to refer to paragraph numbers (§) and letters rather than pages. Information may be found relatively easily in Gesenius by using his three indices:

  1. "Index of Subjects"

  2. "Index of Hebrew Words and Forms" (alphabetical, following the Hebrew alphabet) and

  3. "Index of Passages" (which follows the order of the Hebrew Bible, with Chronicles last).

Some newer printings of Gesenius (Oxford University Press, 1985 and following) contain a more complete index. These indices are preceded by paradigms.

A typical use of Gesenius is when a form is encountered that cannot be easily understood or translated. For example, when reading Genesis 22:2, the function of לְךָ in וְלֶךְ־לְךָ is not immediately evident. It is almost always easiest to use the "Index of Passages," which (in the newer editions) refers to §119s. That same paragraph could also be found by looking under the "Index of Hebrew Words and Forms," under "לְ . . . uses of 119 r—u." (The relevant paragraph appears in the "Index of Subjects" under "Dativus ethicus," but only the person who already knew the likely function of לְךָ would look there!)

It is often difficult to begin reading a paragraph of Gesenius in the middle of a chapter, and it is a good idea to first read the initial paragraph of the chapter, and then several paragraphs before the one in question. Thus, § 119 deals with how nouns (including pronouns) are connected to verbs, specifically with the function of prepositions in this role. (Note: even without understanding וְלֶךְ־לְךָ, it is quite clearly an imperative verb plus a preposition [ל] with a pronominal suffix.) § 119r discusses the general uses of ל, which our passage obviously does not fit. It then in § 119s suggests a special use "after imperatives" and lists our passage, Gen 22:2 (see full entry below).


[§ 119s] (1) As a nota dativi to introduce the remoter object; also

(2) To introduce the dativus commodi. This dativus commodi (or incommodi, e. g. Ez 37:11) is used—especially in colloquial language and in later style—in the form of a pronoun with לְ, as an apparently pleonastic dativus ethicus, with many verbs, in order to give emphasis to the significance of the occurrence in question for a particular subject. In this construction the person of the pronoun must always agree with that of the verbal form.12 By far the most frequent use of this לְ is with the pronoun of the 2nd person after imperatives, e. g. לֶךְ־לְךָ go, get thee away, Gn 12:1, 22:2, Dt 2:13 (also in the feminine, Ct 2:10, 13); נְטֵה לְךָ turn thee aside, 2 S 2:21; ‏סְעוּ לָכֶם take your journey, Dt 1:7; ‏עִבְרוּ לָכֶם pass ye over; ‏בְּרַח־לְךָ flee (to save thyself), Gn 27:43; ‏עֲלִי־לָךְ get thee up, Is 40:9; ‏פְּנוּ לָכֶם turn you, Dt 1:40; ‏שׁוּבוּ לָכֶם return ye, Dt 5:27; ‏ק֫וּמִי לָךְ rise up, Ct 2:10; ‏שְׁבוּ לָכֶם abide ye, Gn 22:5; ‏חֲדַל לְךָ forbear thee, 2 Ch 35:21 (in the plural, Is 2:22); ‏הָ֫בוּ לָכֶם take you, Dt 1:13, Jos 18:4, Ju 20:7, 2 S 16:20, and so almost regularly הִשָּׁ֫מֶר לְךָ (see above, § 51 n) cave tibi! and הִשָּֽׁמְרוּ לָכֶם take heed to yourselves; ‏דְמֵה לְךָ be thou like, Ct 2:17 (cf. verse 9), 8:14, is remarkable; after a perfect consecutive, 1 K 17:3, 1 S 22:5; after an imperfect consecutive, e. g. Is 36:9 ‏וַתִּבְטַח לְךָ and puttest thy trust.—In the 3rd person, e. g. וַתֵּ֫שֶׁב לָהּ and sat her down, Gn 21:16, cf. 22:5, Ex 18:27, Ps 120:6, 123:4, Jb 6:19; even after a participle, Ho 8:9.—In the 1st person plural, Ez 37:11.

The use suggested by Gesenius, if it is correct, is quite subjective and difficult to translate: "in order to give emphasis to the significance of the occurrence in question for a particular subject."

The other standard BH reference grammar in English is Paul Joüon, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew, translated and revised by T. Muraoka (Rome: Gregorian and Biblical Press, 2006) , typically abbreviated JM. JM is not quite as detailed as Gesenius, but is often easier to follow, and is more up to date. Like Gesenius, it concludes with paradigms and three indices. Using these indices, it is easy to find that the לְךָ of Genesis 22:2 is discussed in § 133d, where he suggests that "dativus ethicus," the term used by Gesenius and others, is not appropriate, and instead this use carries an "indirect reflexive nuance" (see full entry below).

133d לְ means to. It often expresses direction (but in a less precise manner than ‏אֶל); often, too, there is neither direction nor motion. ‏ל‎ as indicator of the accusative (§ 125 k) is related to the meaning of direction. ‏ל expresses the idea of relation (in relation to) with a wide variety of nuances. Thus it expresses possession (cp. ל auctoris, § 130 b) and replaces the genitive (§ 130 a); it indicates the author of the action (§ 132 f). It is used for causality, finality and yardstick (according to). In the temporal sense ‏ל‎ is far less common than ‏ב‎. Because of the extreme variety of its meanings, ‏ל‎ often has a rather vague value. This is probably why it sometimes continues another preposition, the meaning of which it virtually assumes, e.g. in the combination ‏בֵּין .. ל‎ (= ‏בֵּין .. וּבֵין‎)12; thus ‏ל is found continuing ‏לְמַ֫עַן‎ [p. 459] Is 55.5; ‏לִפְנֵי Ezr 7.28; עַל Jr 1.18; 17.1.

The sections of JM that concern the syntax of the verb are especially useful, and the footnotes in this grammar refer to many recent articles and monographs on grammatical subjects.

A recent grammar that covers only phonology and morphology is Joshua Blau, Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns, 2010). This is the English edition of the original Hebrew version. Blau's approach is diachronic, which seeks to explain the development of BH over time. This is opposed to other reference grammars that have a more synchronic focus.

The syntax of BH is typically viewed as complex and debated, and is the subject of many books. Bruce K. Waltke and M. O'Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), at over seven hundred pages, is hardly an introduction, but is useful in its attempts to apply modern linguistic theories to BH. It contains a very helpful "Glossary" (pp. 689 — 94) and is well-indexed. Arnold and Choi, A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), and Williams' Hebrew Syntax, third edition (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), are much shorter and more straightforward; the latter contains very useful footnotes with cross-references to other grammars.

Often, it is difficult to predict which grammar will cover a particular problematic issue. A Cumulative Index to the Grammar and Syntax of Biblical Hebrew, compiled by Frederic Clarke Putnam (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996), contains references to grammatical discussions to each biblical verse, and is very useful.

Biblical grammarians are similar to lexicographers: they are descriptive, using the biblical text, ancient translations and other languages as evidence in constructing their grammatical principles. This is quite different from modern prescriptive grammars, which, e.g., may say that "ain't" is not acceptable. Thus, grammars make judgment calls and mistakes: the same pieces of evidence may be categorized or interpreted differently. Thus, these biblical grammars must be used critically.

More detailed resources on biblical lexicography and grammar may be found at http://faculty.washington.edu/snoegel/hebrew.html.