Review Notes: Intro. Lessons I to X

A statue of the great Roman grammarian Quintilian (lived circa 35 to 100 A.D.) in his native Spain/Hispania

By Txo (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

By Oswald Sobrino

These review notes repeat what I cover as review at the beginning of each class in more detailed form. They sometimes contain material that we may not have covered in our class readings due to lack of time (for example, from the extra reading on letters and numbers at the end of Ch. 1 or on your Latin liber or book at the end of Ch. 2).

If you are absent from a class, please review these notes and read the chapter for the class you missed, preferably using the audio recording to help you with pronunciation. You may need to stop the recording periodically if the pace of the recording is too fast for you. Of course, you can always ask questions in class or via email about material covered in any class you missed.

All are encouraged to reread the chapter in Latin after we have covered it in class to see how much you can understand as you read in Latin. You will savor the sense of accomplishment that will encourage you to persist. I also recommend, if you have time, to look over the questions in Pensum C ("Homework C") found at the end of each chapter. We will begin each class by doing most of Pensum C for the chapter covered in the previous class.

Capitulum Primum:

• The main point of this chapter is to get you to start reading simple sentences in Latin using forms of the verb "to be," which is esse in Latin. As in English, a sentence is a complete thought that requires a subject (the doer of the action) and a verb (an action word or a word indicating a state of being as the verb "to be" does). A sentence that merely asserts something is a declarative sentence. A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sentence and often uses question or interrogative words.
• Third Person Singular of the verb "to be": est (he, she, or it is)
• Third Person Plural of the verb "to be": sunt (they are)
• Different types of nouns are grouped in different declensions.
• Question words: -ne: expects a yes or no answer; num expects a "no" answer
• After preposition in, use long "a" ending: in Italiā for 1st Declension singular nouns; use ō for all 2nd Declension singular nouns; called ablative case and used when "in" is telling you where something is located.
• 2nd Declension Masculine Nominative (Subject case) Singular: -us; Nominative Plural: -ī
• 1st Declension (usually) Feminine Nominative Singular: -a; Nominative Plural: -ae
• 2nd Declension Neuter Nominative Singular: -um; Nominative Plural: -a.
• For numerals, see p. 308: except for unus, duo, and tres, the numbers through 100 are indeclinable, i.e. (id est/that is), they do not change at all in their form or endings. See this link: http://www.informalmusic.com/latinsoc/latnum.html#

All the endings for the various noun declensions can be found at p. 307. The textbook is designed to gradually introduce all of these endings.

Capitulum Secundum:

• The main point of this chapter is the genitive case, which indicates possession. In English grammar, we call it the possessive case. I recommend translating the genitive case using "of." Recall that we already have had the nominative case which is used for the subject of a finite verb and for regular adjectives, predicate adjectives, and predicate nouns or pronouns which describe or identify the subject. (Such predicate nouns or pronouns are also called "predicate nominatives" for the obvious reason.) A "finite verb" is a verb or action word which is limited or made finite by being tied to a particular person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) and number (singular or plural). A "case" indicates the use/job/syntax of a noun in a sentence.
• Recall that 1st person means that the subject of the verb is or includes the speaker (I or we). 2nd person means that the subject is the person to whom you are speaking (you or you all). 3rd person means that the subject is someone or something that is spoken about (he, she, it, they).
• Genitive case endings: 2nd Declension Masculine and Neuter: Singular -ī; Plural: ōrum; 1st Declension Feminine: Singular -ae; Plural -ārum.
• The suffix -que is another form of et or and. Marcusque= et Marcus. Such suffixes or additions to the end of a word are called enclitics. Recall that -ne is also an enclitic added to the end of the first word in a question that expects a yes or no answer. They are not case endings because they do not tell us the job or syntax of the word itself.
• More question words or interrogative pronouns: quis? who (masculine)? quae? who (feminine)? quid? what? (neuter, i.e., a thing). Recall that Latin nouns have gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Since Latin adjectives must match or agree with the nouns they modify or describe, the adjectives will have three sets of endings: masculine, feminine, and neuter. So when you see "us, a, um" after a new word introduced in the margin of your textbook, you know that it is an adjective or describing word. Adjectives not only match the noun or pronoun they describe in gender but also in number (singular or plural) and case (thus far, nominative and genitive).
• Plural question word or interrogative pronoun: quī? who (masculine plural)?, as in "Who are they?"
• Adjectives: duo, duae, duo (masc., fem., neuter); tres, tres, tria (m, f, n); meus, a, um; tuus, a, um; ceteri, ae, a (other, as in the phrase "et cetera"/and other things). On p. 16, we also have the adjectives for new and old: novus, a, um, and antiquus, a, um.

All the adjective endings to be covered in the text are at the bottom of p. 307.

Capitulum Tertium

• The main point of this third chapter is the accusative case (known in English grammar as the objective case). The most important use of the accusative case is as the direct object of a predicate verb. Recall that a verb is an action word and "predicate" simply means that the verb is telling you something about the subject (the doer of the action).
• The kernel of every sentence = subject + predicate verb. Now, with the accusative case, we add a direct object of the predicate verb to this kernel that receives the action of the predicate verb. Verbs that "pass across" the action to a direct object are called transitive verbs (the Latin trans means "across").
• The characteristic ending for the accusative is the letter "m" as in the English word "whom" which is in the objective case (the English "who" is the nominative or subject case). E.g., "Whom [objective] did Marcus hit?" "Who [nominative] is Marcus?"
• For 1st Declension Fem.: Accusative Singular ending is am. For 2d Declension Masculine and Neuter, the Accusative Singular is um. Thus, Marcus Iuliam pulsat, where Marcus is the Nominative subject, pulsat is the predicate verb, and Iuliam is the direct object in the accusative case that received the action of hitting. Likewise, Marcus Quintum pulsat, where Quintum is also in the accusative case.
• In this chapter, we also get new verbs. They all end with the letter "t" which tells us that the subject of these verbs must be third person singular (he, she, it, Marcus, Iulia, et cetera).
• We also get pronouns (words that stand in place of a noun) in the accusative case: him=eum; her=eam. So we could substitute, e.g. (exempli gratia/for example), eam for Iuliam thus: Marcus eam pulsat/Marcus hits her. Eam takes the place of Iuliam so Iuliam is called the antecedent of eam.
• While nouns are divided into groups called declensions, verbs are divided into groups called conjugations. We begin to see some of the different conjugations in this chapter. A verb ending in -at like vocat is the 1st Conjugation. A verb ending in -et like rīdet is 2nd Conjugation. A verb ending in -it like audit is 4th Conjugation.
• We also get some Relative Pronouns in this chapter which take the place of nouns in subordinate or dependent clauses. A clause is a group of words containing at least a subject and a predicate. So far, we have dealt with main or independent clauses that make complete sense standing alone. In contrast, a subordinate clause depends on a main clause to make complete sense.
• Subordinate Clause using Relative Pronoun as its subject (nominative case): Marcus qui est improbus Iuliam pulsat. Main clause is in blue. The subordinate clause in bold. The subject within the subordinate clause is the relative pronoun qui/who which takes the place of Marcus within the subordinate clause and so must be in the nominative case; Marcus is the antecedent of qui. The predicate verb within the subordinate clause is est. The word improbus is a predicate adjective (an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject and is thus in the same gender, number, and case). Translation of the example: Marcus, who is bad, hits Julia. The feminine singular accusative relative pronoun is quae.
• Subordinate Clause using Relative Pronoun as its direct object (accusative case): Iulia quam Marcus pulsat est proba. Iulia, whom Marcus hit, is good. Now, the relative pronoun quam in the feminine singular accusative is used because it takes the place of Iulia within the subordinate clause. Within the subordinate clause, Julia is the direct object of the verb pulsat and so must be in the accusative case. For a masculine noun, the accusative singular relative pronoun is quem.
• We have seen above subordinate clauses that are relative clauses because they use relative pronouns. In this chapter, we also get another type of subordinate clause--the causal clause. It is joined to the main clause by the subordinate conjunction quia/because.
• Summary examples of subordinate clauses: 1.) Marcus qui est improbus Iuliam quae est proba pulsat quia Marcus iratus est. "Marcus, who is bad, hits Julia, who is good, because Marcus is angry." 2.) Iulia quam Marcus pulsat plorat quia Marcus, quem Iulia videt, Quintum pulsat. "Julia, whom Marcus hits, cries because Marcus, whom Julia sees, hits Quintus."

For new Vocabulary, see the list on p. 25, right hand margin of your textbook. The new vocabulary includes the very useful interrogative adverb cūr or why.

Capitulum Quartum

• This chapter gives you more practice to consolidate what you have learned thus far and introduces only two new matters: the Vocative Case and the Imperative Mood.
• You already learned the verb "vocat" which means he, she, or it calls. Hence, the vocative case applies when the noun (and any adjective modifying/describing it) is used in direct address--in calling out to someone. E.g., "Et tu Brute!" which we think might have been uttered by Caesar as he was being murdered by a group of Senators on the Ides [15th] of March of 44 B.C. (although, if he said it, it might have been in Greek, not in Latin!). "Brute" is in the vocative case. In the nominative, the name is "Brutus," which can be loosely translated as "dummy." The -us ending turns into an -e when the name is used in direct address. Hence, in this chapter, when the master/dominus calls his slaves Davus or Medus, you will see him say "Dave" or "Mede." When the slaves address the "dominus," they, in turn, say "domine."
• With some other nouns not ending in -us, often the vocative form is the same as the nominative form. E.g., domina, Maria, Aemilia, Iulia, and others/et cetera.
• The grammatical term "mood" refers to the fundamental ways in which we speak. Most of what we read is in the "Indicative Mood"--the manner of speaking in which we communicate facts. In contrast, the "Imperative Mood" refers to commands.
• How is the Imperative Mood formed in Latin? If we have a verb like "vocat" in which we have the vowel "a," we simply write "vocā" which means "(you) call!" Notice that the "a" is long (written with that little line above it called a macron). This type of verb with an "a" is called First Conjugation.
• If you have a verb like "tacet" with an "e" vowel near its end, we write the imperative as "tacē" which means "(you) be quiet!" This type of verb with an "e" near its end is called Second Conjugation.
• When we have a verb like "discēdit" with an "i" near its end, we write the command as "discēde" without a long mark or macron over that last "e." Hence, "discede" means "(you) leave!" This type of verb is called Third Conjugation.
• Finally, when we have a verb like "audit" with an "i" near its end, we write the command "(you) hear!" as "audī." This type of verb is Fourth Conjugation. Hey, since both discedit and audit have an "i" near the end of the word, how can we tell the difference between the Third and Fourth Conjugations? The short answer is that you will learn it when you learn the verb's infinitive form which signals the conjugation to which a verb belongs. You will learn about the infinitive in a future chapter.
• On p. 309 at the back of your textbook, we have 5 columns of verbs going down the page. The first four columns are for the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Conjugations. The last column is for the verb "to be" or "esse," which is not part of any particular conjugation because it is irregular in form.
• Thus, Orberg has in a sneaky fashion begun to introduce you to the Latin system of classifying different verbs by showing you how each kind of verbs looks in the imperative mood (commands).
• A good summary of all of the above is on p. 30 in the section "Grammatica Latina." You should pay close attention to this section at the end of each chapter as you review on your own what we have already covered in class.

My advice at this point: try filling out the worksheets on this website to put what you have learned in perspective. Then, REREAD, REREAD, REREAD, preferably while listening to the audio file. The more you reread the more you will gain in confidence in your use of Latin. We also need as students the encouraging effects of showing off our knowledge to ourselves. It is a pleasure to reread a chapter that you already have under control. (By the way, there is a worksheet for the Imperative Mood.)

Capitulum Quintum

Here are the new things added in this chapter: the Accusative Plural, the Ablative Singular and Plural, the Imperative Plural (you got the singular in Ch. 4), and the Third Person Indicative Mood Plural forms for our new verbs. Compare the review notes below with pp. 37-38 "Grammatica Latina" in your textbook.

• New Accusative Case Endings:
• 1st Declension Fem.: Acc. Singular: -am ; Acc. Plural: -ās.
• 2nd Declension Masc.: Acc. Singular: -um; Acc. Plural: -ōs.
• 2nd Declension Neuter: Acc. Singular: -um; Acc. Plural: -a.
• New Ablative Case endings:
• 1st Decl. Fem: Ablative Singular: -ā ; Abl. Plural: -īs.
• 2nd Decl. Masc: Abl. Singular: -ō; Abl. Plural: -īs.
• 2nd Decl. Neuter: Abl. Singular: -ō ; Abl. Plural: -īs.
• Notice that your Masc. and Neuter 2nd Decl. Ablative endings are the same.
• The Ablative case has very many uses in Latin. You have already seen when the object of the preposition is in the Ablative case, as in the first chapter (in Italiā) or as in the fourth chapter (in sacculō). I will point out different uses of the Ablative as they occur when we read our text.
• Imperative Mood Plural Ending:
• We had the Imperative in the singular in Ch. 4, i.e./id est/that is, when you give a command to one person. Now, we get the Imperative plural ending (-te) for giving a command to "you" plural or "you all."
• Hence, First Conjugation: vocā (you call); vocāte (you all call); Second Conjugation: tacē (you be quiet); tacēte (you all be quiet); Third Conjugation: discēde (you leave); discēdite (you all leave); Fourth Conjugation: venī (you come); venīte (you all come).
• Indicative Mood Verb Endings Thus Far:
• Recall that the indicative mood is our normal, default mode of talking--making assertions of fact that are not commands. We have had the Third Person Indicative Singular endings for our various types of verbs. All the Third Person Indicative Active Singular verbs end in -t. We now get in this chapter all the Third Person Indicative Active Plural endings, all of which end in -nt.
• 1st Conj.: vocat/he, she, it calls; vocant/they call.
• 2nd Conj.: tacet/he, she, it keeps quiet; tacent/they keep quiet.
• 3rd Conj.: discēdit/he, she, it departs; discēdunt/they depart.
• 4th Conj.: venit/he, she, it comes; veniunt/they come.

Orberg gives you thus far only the third person verb endings (with -t for singular and -nt for plural). I will now give you a picture of the whole forest of active verb personal endings, called "personal" because they tell you what person and number the subject of a verb is, even if the subject is not written out in the sentence.

Personal Endings for Verbs (Active Voice, where the subject is doing the action of the verb)

Sing. Plural

1st Person (I) -o or -m (we) -mus

2nd Person (you) -s (you plural or you all) -tis

3rd Person (he, she, it) -t (they) -nt

Capitulum Sextum

• You will find on p. 45 ("Grammatica Latina") a list of prepositions, some of which take the accusative case for their objects, some of which take the ablative case. The more you read and reread the more you will recognize the patterns.
• You will also find in this chapter, as in other chapters, some small words that you will eventually get used to in the course of your reading: "Quo?"/"Where to?"; "Unde?"/"From where?"; "Nam"/"For"; "Itaque"/"And so/Therefore." These new words are simply a matter of recognition as a result of reading again and again.
• What is really crucial in this chapter is the Passive Voice, in which the subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action of the predicate verb. Thus, Active Voice: Marcus hits Quintus=Marcus Quintum pulsat; but Passive Voice: Quintus is hit by Marcus=Quintus a Marco pulsatur.
• To make the active verb into a passive verb, the ending -tur is added to the 3rd person singular (he, she, or it). Thus, on p. 46, amat becomes amatur; videt becomes videtur; ponit becomes ponitur; audit becomes auditur.
• For the 3rd person plural (they), it is no surprise, given the previous chapter's review notes, that we find an "nt" in the passive ending: -ntur. Thus, amant becomes amantur; vident becomes videntur; ponunt becomes ponuntur; and audiunt becomes audiuntur.
• That's a big advance on your part: now you can use 3rd person verbs not only in the active voice but also in the passive voice.
• Notice that once we go passive, the sentence often specifies the agent of the action. The subject is no longer performing the action--hence, we need an agent to be expressed, as in "Quintus is hit by Marcus." The preposition a or ab (which we previously learned can mean "from") can also mean "by" and so "a Marco" means "by Marcus" in our example. As before, a or ab as prepositions take the ablative case. That is why Marcus is written with the "-ō" ending.
• But, if the means of carrying out the action is a thing, such as Julius' feared baculum, we do not need the preposition a or ab at all. We can simply name the inanimate instrument or means of carrying out the action by itself in the ablative case. This new use of the ablative case is called the Ablative of Means and is very common in Latin writings. Hence, "Quintus baculō pulsatur" means "Quintus is hit by the rod." The ablative noun "baculō" is the Ablative of Means (also known as the Instrumental Ablative for obvious reasons).
• Finally, in this chapter, we have Julius returning to the villa from the town of Tusculum (see the map on p. 41 top). Orberg uses this return to show us how to say that someone is going to a city or coming from a city or is at a particular city.
• The following points summarize these concepts about movement to or from a city or location in a specific city:
• Motion Toward: put the name of the city in the accusative case without a preposition. Hence, we say "to the town/ad oppidum;" but we drop the preposition in saying "to Rome/Romam."
• Motion From: put the name of the city in the ablative case without a preposition. Hence, we say "from the town/a oppido;" but we drop the preposition and say "from Rome/Romā."
• Place Where: We say "in the town/in oppido;" but we drop the preposition and say "in Rome/Romae." This particular case showing location for a city is called the Locative Case. For our singular First and Second Declension nouns, the locative case equals the genitive case that we have already learned.
• This rigmarole about motion and cities is summarized at the bottom of p. 45. I found this internet link helpful in formulating the above points. Again, you will recognize the pattern after repeated readings.
• So, remember that the important breakthroughs in Ch. 6 are the passive voice and the Ablative of Means or Instrument described above. Again, to consolidate your learning, I urge you to reread the chapters we have already covered in class and to try your hand at the various worksheets. I will be happy to check any worksheets or to answer any questions on previous chapter translations that may be giving you trouble. Feel free to contact me by email if needed.

Capitulum Septimum

You have now reached a milestone--in this chapter, you get the last noun case: the Dative Case. The Dative case is primarily the case for the indirect object, although it has other uses.

Let's first review the Direct Object and the Accusative Case. For example, "Marcus Quintum pulsat" means "Marcus hits Quintus," where "Quintus" is the direct object of the verb "hits." How do you find the direct object? Go to the verb and ask: "Whom or What?" In this case, you ask "Whom did Marcus hit?" The answer is "Quintus." Thus, the direct object is "Quintus;" and it thus goes into the Accusative Case that you have already encountered.

To find the Indirect Object of the verb, ask "To whom or for whom?" For example, let's look at this sentence: "Iulia gives the rose to Aemilia"/"Iulia Aemiliae rosam dat."

What does Julia give? The rose, which is thus the direct object and so in the accusative case.

To whom does Julia give the rose? To Aemilia. Thus, Aemilia is the indirect object of the verb "dat." Since Aemilia is the indirect object, we put it into the Dative Case (notice that "dative" is related to the word "dat" because the indirect object is the person to whom we give something).

The dative of Aemilia is Aemiliae because it is a First Declension singular noun. Here are the rest of the Dative endings for all the declensions of Latin nouns that you know so far:

First Declension: Singular: -ae Plural: -īs ;

Second Declension, Masculine and Neuter: Singular: -ō Plural: -īs.

You can also find the above endings at p. 52 of your textbook at "Grammatica Latina."

Of course, in this chapter, you also get new vocabulary--but I have pointed out those words in class, as Orberg often does in the margins of your book.

Again, if you have questions while rereading the chapter in Latin, email me or ask me in our next class.

Capitulum Octavum

In this chapter, on buying and selling, you get another use of the Ablative Case: the Ablative of Price. For example (e.g.="exempli gratiā"--literally "for the sake of an example"; think of this common phrase as if gratia was a preposition taking the genitive case but placed after its object):

"This ring costs 1oo coins/sesterces." = "Hic anulus centum nummis constat." The "centum" does not decline--it is always "centum." But the word for coin or sesterce (a small silver coin) is nummus, -i, masculine, 2nd Declension. This word is in the ablative plural (nummis) as the Ablative of Price. By the way, the Latin for sesterce is sestertius, -iī, masculine, 2nd declension (except that the genitive plural ends in -ium.)

So far, we have seen the Ablative also used as the object of certain prepositions (especially indicating place where or location), as the inanimate means or instrument of an action, and as motion from a city or town.

Orberg introduces here (see Grammatica Latina on pp. 59-61) more pronouns, words which take the place of a noun.

On p. 308, you get a table of all of these pronouns.

Look under "Demonstrativa," and you will first find the series "is, ea, id" going across the Nominative Singular row. As a demonstrative pronoun, "is, ea, id" can mean "this" or "that." But this pronoun can also simply be a personal pronoun, as we have seen previously: "Marcus eum videt"/Marcus sees him (where "eum" is the Masculine Accusative Singular of "is").

The next two pronouns are, strictly speaking, your real Demonstrative Pronouns.

The series "hic, haec, hoc" means "this." The series "ille, illa, illud" means "that." Should you memorize these forms? Traditionally, students do memorize them; but you can focus in this course on recognizing them as we read. Most of the endings are already recognizable from your experience with First and Second Declension nouns. The ones that will appear most new to you are: hujus and illius (Genitive Singulars); huic and illī (Dative Singulars). The Ablative Singulars should be familiar because of the long a and long o in the forms: hōc and hāc, since your long o is the 2nd Declension noun ablative singular ending and since the long a is your First Declension ablative singular ending. [Notice also that the Neuter Nominative (and thus also Accusative) Plural for hic, haec, hoc is different from the -a ending in the 2nd Declension Neuter: haec.]

In addition to the above Demonstrative Pronouns, we also get a summary of the Relative Pronoun series "qui, quae, quod." Again, most of the endings should already be familiar as First and Second Declension noun endings, except for: cuius (genitive singular); cui (dative singular); and quibus (dative and ablative plurals). Do you see the distinctive genitive and dative singular pattern similar to the huius and huic of the demonstrative pronoun "hic, haec, hoc"?

A relative pronoun, of course, takes the place of a noun, as in the sentence, "The man who is at Rome is coming"/Vir qui Romae est venit. The "qui" takes the place of vir or man in the dependent clause known as a relative clause that describes vir or man. "Qui" is the subject of "est" in the dependent clause "qui Romae est." Thus, the relative clause begins with a relative pronoun that refers back to the noun vir, which is called the antecedent of qui. The entire relative clase is in blue above. The antecedent of qui is in red. Do you recall why the location at Rome is expressed with "Romae"? (Hint: locative case--see previous review notes)

In English, as in Latin, we can use these Relative Pronouns to ask questions, such as: "Who are you? What is that?"

These Interrogative Pronouns decline just like the Relative Pronoun, except that in the Nominative Singular "quis or who" replaces "qui," and "quid or what" replaces "quod." Since "quod" is the Nominative Singular Neuter of the Interrogative Pronoun, the Accusative Singular Neuter is also "quod," under our rule that, for the neuter gender, the nominative equals the accusative.

In English, as in Latin, we can also use the Relative Pronouns as Interrogative Adjectives such as: "Which sack is there? Which man did it? What door is it?" (where "which" modifies "sack" and "man;" "what" modifies "door"). Good news: the Interrogative Adjective forms are exactly the same as the Relative Pronoun forms.

(For the Relative Pronoun and Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives, notice that the neuter nominative and accusative plurals are "quae"--this form is different from the 2nd Declension Neuter -a ending that we would expect in the neuter nominative and accusative plurals.)

Take a deep breath, and remember that you are aiming to recognize the patterns. That pattern recognition ability will increase the more you read and reread. You may wish to go back to Chapters 1 or 2 and reread them if you have extra time. You will be amazed at how easy those chapters now are for you because of the progress you have already made as a Latin student. Congratulations!

Capitulum Nonum

In this entertaining chapter, your ability to read more complex sentences is on display. For example, you are now able to read longish relative clauses acting in the role of the subject of the sentence (p. 64 at line 15):

Quī viā Appiā Romā Brundisium it multōs pāstorēs videt in campīs.

He who goes by means of the Via Appia from Rome to Brundisium sees many shepherds in the fields.

The relative clause acts as one "big" noun (in my view, a substantive or noun use of the relative clause; you can think of it in this way: relative clauses are adjectival clauses, but in Latin we can use adjectives as nouns or substantives as in "The good are worthy"; hence the adjectival relative clause can also be used as a noun, i.e., used substantively; Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar, at Section 624, notes that the relative clause can serve "as a circumlocution [or roundabout expression] for a substantive"). This "substantively used" relative clause is the subject of the predicate verb videt.

Notice also the many uses of the Ablative Case in the sentence: Means (viā Appiā); Motion From (Romā); Object of the Preposition Showing Place Where (in campīs). Also, notice the accusative Brundisium indicating Motion Toward.

But the main new grammar in this chapter is the Third Declension. These nouns can be masculine, feminine, or neuter. The masculine and feminine nouns share the same endings. The neuter nouns (introduced in a later chapter at p. 83) are slightly different. Here are the endings for all of them (cf. p. 307 top).

Third Declension Noun Endings

Masculine and Feminine

Sing. Plural

N Irregular -ēs

G -is -um or ium

D -ī -ibus

Acc -em -ēs

Abl -e -ibus

Neuter (p. 83)

Sing. Plural

N Irregular -a or ia

G -is -um or ium

D -ī -ibus

Acc Irregular -a or ia

Abl -e or ī -ibus

Capitulum Decimum et Ultimum

This introductory course reaches its end with Ch. 10. And, with this final chapter, you are introduced to the infinitive form of the verb--a form that is used widely in Latin, especially to make indirect statements after a main verb.

What is an infinitive? In English, it is the verb with the preposition "to" in front of it, as in "to call" or "to see." We can also make the infinitive passive--as in, "to be called" or "to be seen." (By the way, we call it an "infinitive" because, unlike a finite verb, the infinitive is not limited or "made finite" to a particular subject with a specific person and number. Thus, we can use the same infinitive form whether its subject is first person or third person, singular or plural. I speak about the subject of an infinitive below.) This chapter introduces you to the active and passive forms of the present tense infinitive for all four verb conjugations as numbered below:

Present Active Infinitive Present Passive Infinitive

1.) vocāre vocārī

2.) vidēre vidērī

3.) pōnere pōnī

4.) audīre audīrī

See also pp. 74 and 75 of this chapter's Grammatica Latina.

How is the infinitive used? You will see two main uses:

1. A Complementary Infinitive "fills up" or completes the meaning of the main predicate verb, as in:

Marcus is able to see./Marcus vidēre potest.

The verb "potest, possunt" meaning "be able" by its nature needs an infinitive to complete its meaning.

2. You will also see the infinitive used with an accusative subject to express an Indirect Statement after a main verb of speaking, seeing, etc. These types of main verbs have to do with actions relating to stating or thinking something or with the use of our senses. Some call them "mind and mouth" verbs because they refer to actions related to our thoughts and to our speech. This accusative plus infinitive construction is ubiquitous in Latin writings (you know what the adjective means since you have learned the meaning of "ubi").

E.g., Marcus sees that Quintus falls to the ground.

Marcus Quintum de terram cadere videt. (Line 105, at p. 73)

The Accusative plus Infinitive construction is in blue.

The main verb is videt--a verb referring to our sense of seeing. What does Marcus see? The accusative plus infinitive gives a "big" Direct Object for this verb: that Quintus falls to the ground. Notice that the subject of the infinitive (Quintum--the one he does the falling) is in the accusative case, an exception to our general rule that the Nominative Case is the subject case. "Cadere" is a third conjugation verb that follows the pattern of "ponere" above. (A good reminder of what "cadere" means is to think of the word "cadence" in English that can refer to a falling intonation.)

Why do we call this construction an Indirect Statement? A Direct Statement would be Marcus saying, "Quintus falls to the ground!" An Indirect Statement would be my reporting to you, "Marcus sees that Quintus falls to the ground."

What about an example of the passive infinitive in Indirect Statement?

Julius sees that Quintus was hit./Iulius Quintum pulsārī videt. The verb "pulsare" follows the pattern of the First Conjugation verb "vocāre," hence its passive infinitive form is as shown in the above example.

If you get used to the Accusative plus Infinitive Indirect Statement Construction, you will have taken a major step forward in your slowly growing mastery of basic Latin. Orberg introduces this construction in his Grammatica Latina at p. 83, bottom, and lists examples of main verbs that make indirect statements., including the impersonal phrase introduced in Ch. 10 "necesse est."

Finally, notice also that an infinitive by itself can also act as the subject of the main verb, as in Seneca's: "To err is human"/Errare humanum est. The infinitive "errare" is the subject, and "humanum" is a predicate adjective describing "errare." Since an infinitive is viewed as neuter in gender, the adjective has the neuter nominative singular ending -um. We can also, in some situations, view the accusative plus infinitive construction itself as a "big" subject for a main verb if we say: "That Quintus falls is necessary"/Quintum cadere necesse est.

We are at the end of this basic introduction to Latin. You are well-prepared to continue your future Latin studies. If you do not continue in Latin, at least you have taken the time to acquaint yourself with the basics of Latin and have experienced Latin firsthand by reading it aloud and by translating it as we have read together Orberg's stories. You have also learned some of the history and culture of ancient Rome. You have taken the time to get to know better one of the pillars and instruments of world civilization and thought.