The Russian orthographic reform of 1917-1918 introduced a number of major changes into the Russian language, including the elimination of several letters from the alphabet and the spelling of a number of ubiquitous affixes. However, Russian spelling rules were not officially codified until 1956, and certain minor variations and inconsistencies can be found in Soviet publications of this early period. Pre-reform spelling rules were not officially codified at all; therefore much greater variation in spelling can be found in pre-revolutionary publications. Furthermore, Russian emigré communities, for whom spelling became a political matter, continued to issue publications in pre-reform orthography (often introducing their own variations) throughout the 20th century. Consequently, individuals working with these publications may encounter variations in spelling not covered in this document. Appropriate reference sources should be consulted in those cases.
The orthographic reform eliminated 4 letters (I i, Ѣ ѣ, Ѳ ѳ, Ѵ ѵ) from the Russian alphabet, and greatly restricted the use of ъ (tverdyi znak). The following table summarizes the correspondences between obsolete letters and their modern counterparts. Each letter is discussed in greater detail below.
Pre-reform spelling Romanization Modern spelling Romanization
of pre-reform spelling of modern spelling
I i Ī ī И и * I i
Ѣ ѣ I︠E︡ i︠e︡ Е е * E e
Ѳ ѳ Ḟ ḟ Ф ф F f
Ѵ ѵ Ẏ ẏ И и I i
*For exceptions and special situations see below.
1. I і (и десятеричное / i desiaterichnoe)
This letter appeared most commonly before vowels and the letter й, as well as in a small number of roots (e.g. мiръ 'world'). It corresponds to the modern letter И и in most environments.
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
стихотворенія стихотворения
stikhotvorenīi︠a︡ stikhotvorenii︠a︡
However, when i occurs before the letter o, modern spelling may have several different outcomes, and special attention should be exercised.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
фiолетовый фиолетовый
fīoletovyĭ fīoletovyĭ
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
серiозный серьëзный
serīoznyĭ ser′ёznyĭ
3) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
маiоръ майор
maīor″ maĭor
4) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
медалiонъ медальон
medalīon″ medal′on
This letter appeared in approximately 130 roots, as well as in a number of derivational and inflectional affixes. It corresponds to modern Е е in all environments, save for the exceptional forms further below.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
повѣсть повесть
povi︠e︡st′ povest′
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
Алексѣй Алексей
Aleksi︠e︡ĭ Alekseĭ
Exceptional forms:
Pre-reform orthography had distinct forms for the 3rd person plural feminine pronoun (онѣ) and for the 3rd person masculine plural of один (однѣ). Modern spelling does not make these distinctions.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
онѣ/однѣ они
oni︠e︡/odni︠e︡ oni
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
однѣ (однѣхъ, однѣмъ, однѣми) одни (одних, одним, одними)
odni︠e︡ (odni︠e︡kh″, odni︠e︡m″, odni︠e︡mi) odni (odnikh, odnim, odnimi)
This letter occurred in words of Greek origin. It corresponds to modern Ф ф in all environments.
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
орѳографія орфография
orḟografīi︠a︡ orfografii︠a︡
This letter occurred in words of Greek origin. It corresponds to modern И и in all environments.
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
сѵнодъ синод
sẏnod″ sinod
5. Ъ ъ (твердый знак / tverdyi znak)
This letter appeared at the end of all words and components of compound words that would otherwise end in a consonant. It also appeared in the body of words as a separative sign. Modern spelling retains its use as a separative sign, but omits it at the end of words and components of compound words.
The letter should be transcribed in romanization both when it occurs at the end of a word and when it occurs in middle position; likewise, it should be retained in parallel Cyrillic fields.
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
/контръ-адмиралъ контр-адмирал
kontr″-admiral″ kontr-admiral
Variations in the letter’s use as a separative sign were frequent well into the Soviet period. In some publications, “ъ” was commonly replaced by an apostrophe.
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
с’ездъ съезд
s’ezd″ s′′ezd
II. Morphological changes
In pre-reform orthography, prefixes ending in -з (без-, вз-, воз-, из-, низ-, раз-, роз-, чрез-, через-) remained unchanged regardless of the following consonant. In modern orthography, -з becomes -с if the following consonant is voiceless.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
безполезный бесполезный
bezpoleznyĭ bespoleznyĭ
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
возсоединенiе воссоединение
vozsoedinenīe vossoedinenie
3) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
черезчуръ чересчур
cherezchur″ chereschur
2. Masculine and neuter genitive singular adjectives
Pre-reform orthography had endings -аго, -яго for masculine and neuter genitive singular adjectives. Modern spelling has -ого, его.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
соборъ святаго Марка собор святого Марка
sobor″ svi︠a︡tago Marka sobor svi︠a︡togo Marka
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
синяго цвѣта синего цвета
sini︠a︡go t︠s︡vi︠e︡ta sinego t︠s︡veta
3. Nominative and accusative feminine and neuter adjectives
Pre-reform orthography had distinct plural forms for nominative and accusative feminine and neuter adjectives, with endings -ыя, -iя. Modern spelling does not make this distinction: -ые, -ие are the endings for all genders.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
глупыя шутки глупые шутки
glupyi︠a︡ shutki glupye shutki
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
другiя статьи другие статьи
drugīi︠a︡ stat′i drugie stat'i
3) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
оставшiяся развалины оставшиеся развалины
ostavshīi︠a︡si︠a︡ razvaliny ostavshiesi︠a︡ razvaliny
4. Genitive singular feminine pronoun
Pre-reform orthography had a special form of the genitive singular feminine pronoun (ея). Modern spelling has ee (eё).
Example:
Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
ея сiятельство ее (eё) сиятельство
ei︠a︡ sīi︠a︡tel′stvo ee (eё) sii︠a︡tel′stvo
III. Other spelling variations
Unlike the above examples, the following changes are not always systematic. Some of these variations, though relatively minor, can be found in publications well into the Soviet period. They are listed here as issues that may require special attention.
1. О vs. е (ë) after ч, ж, ш, щ
Pre-reform (and early Soviet) spelling sometimes has о after ч, ж, ш, щ in stressed position, where modern spelling has е (ë).
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
чортъ черт (чëрт)
chort″ chert (chërt)
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
щолкать щелкать
shcholkat′ shchelkat′
Pre-reform (and early Soviet) orthography sometimes had э after и in words of foreign origin, where modern orthography has е.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
клiэнт клиент
klīėnt″ klient
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
гiэна гиена
gīėna giena
Pre-reform orthography sometimes differed from modern usage in the writing of compound words.
Examples:
1) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
повидимому по-видимому
povidimomu po-vidimomu
2) Pre-reform spelling Modern spelling
сельско-хозяйственный сельскохозяйственный
sel′sko-khozi︠a︡ĭstvennyĭ sel′skokhozi︠a︡ĭstvennyĭ
See also:
Transliteration of Titles in Pre-Reform Orthography;
Transliteration of the Hard Sign "ъ” (tverdyi znak);
Names in Pre-Reform Orthography
Revised: Oct. 8, 2015