S8. Leadeship and Org

-The use of constructive-development theory to advance the understanding of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 2006, McCauley, Drath, Palus, O'Connor, Baker, pp: 634 – 653.

Structure

p634 Abstract, Intro

p635 Constructive-developmental theory

Table 1

Comparison of three constructive-developmental frameworks

Questionnaires

Data analysis

p742. The origins of politics

Proposition 1: The greater the centralization of power in

a chief executive, the greater the use of politics within a

top management team.

TABLE 2. Power Centralization

p638 Constructive-developmental theory in the leadership literature

Kegan

Loevinger and Torbert

Kohlberg

Summary

Limitations

p648 Future directions

Overcoming limitations

Links to leadership literature

Beyond the individual orders of development

Extracted Annotations (10/30/2017, 12:09:11 PM)

"neo-Piagetian paradigm. It is beyond the scope of this review to examine all developmental stage theories. For the interested reader, Commons & Richards (2003) and Wilber (2000a) have summarized and worked to integrate a wide variety of these stage theories." (McCauley et al 2006:635)

"The term "constructive-developmental" was first suggested by Kegan (1980) to refer to a stream of work in psychology that focuses on the development of meaning and meaning-making processes across the lifespan. The theory is "constructive" in the sense that it deals with a person's construals, constructions, and interpretations of an experience, that is, the meaning a person makes of an experience. It is "developmental" in the sense that it is concerned with how those construals, constructions, and interpretations of an experience grow more complex over time." (McCauley et al 2006:635)

"Along with Kegan, other early theorists contributing to this stream were Fingarette (1963), Kohlberg (1969), Perry (1970), Selman (1974), and Loevinger (1976)." (McCauley et al 2006:635)

"2. Constructive-developmental theory in the leadership literature We have organized our review of the literature by the theorists whose frameworks are most widely used in the management and leadership literature: Kegan, Loevinger/Torbert, and Kohlberg. Each of these theorists has a different way of labeling and describing the various orders of development. Table 1 shows the alignment of each theorist's framework with the general categories of Dependent, Independent, and Inter-independent. The research related to each theorist's framework also uses different methods for assessing an individual's developmental order—another reason for reviewing the literature separately by theorist." (McCauley et al 2006:638)

"2.4. Summary Most of the leadership literature making use of constructive-developmental theory has focused on the relationship between a leader's order of development and his or her leadership effectiveness or performance as a manager. There is a growing body of research evidence that supports the view that leaders operating at the Independent order are more likely than those operating at the Dependent order to enact leadership in ways deemed effective in most modern organizations. For example, Independent leaders have been found to be more likely to delegate, hold people accountable, influence through rewards and expertise (rather than coercive power), look for underlying causes of problems, act as change agents, and be more comfortable with conflict. Although the arguments for the added effectiveness of leaders operating at the Inter-independent order are compelling, there is mixed support for this assertion. There is some support that leaders at later developmental orders are rated as more competent or effective by others who work with them, but there were also studies that found no relationship between order of development and leadership effectiveness. Finally, there is almost no research that examines how training, development, or coaching programs impact participants' order of development. Studies of development movement in West Point cadets and in students in the Carroll School of Management are the notable exceptions." (McCauley et al 2006:647)

"We see three important avenues for advancing the understanding of the role adult development plays in the practice of leadership. First, the shortcomings of the body of research we reviewed need to be addressed. Second, researchers using constructive-developmental theory should more explicitly link their work to relevant traditional and emerging streams of leadership research. Finally, the focus of the research needs to move beyond a predominant focus on developmental order to include the general dynamics of developmental movement and to move beyond an interest primarily in individual leaders to include the development of leadership processes in groups, teams, and organizations." (McCauley et al 2006:648)

References

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978). Organizational learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Bales, B. E. (2005). An assessment of pastors' moral development stage related to conflict management styles. Dissertation Abstracts International,

66, 04A. (UMI No. 3173105).

Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review

of Psychology, 50, 471−507.

Bartunek, J. M., Gordon, J., & Weathersby, R. P. (1983). Developing “complicated” understanding in administrators. Academy of Management

Review, 8, 273−284.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). Implications of transactional and transformational leadership for individual, team, and organizational

development. In R. W. Woodman & W. A. Passmore (Eds.), Research in Organizational Change and Development (pp. 231−272). Greenwich,

CT: JAI.

Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Beck, D. E., & Cowan, C. C. (1996). Spiral dynamics: Mastering values, leadership, and change. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Berg, C., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Multiple perspectives on the development of adult intelligence. In J. Demick & C. Andreoletti (Eds.), Handbook

of adult development (pp. 103−119). New York: Kluwer Academic.

Berger, J. G., & Fitzgerald, C. (2002). Leadership and complexity of mind: The role of executive coaching. In C. F. Fitzgerald & J. G. Berger (Eds.),

Executive coaching: Practices and perspectives (pp. 27−58). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Brown, M. E., Trevino, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97, 117−134.

Bushe, G. R., & Gibbs, B. W. (1990). Predicting organization development consulting competence from the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator and stage

of ego development. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 26, 337−357.

Candee, D. (1975). The moral psychology of Watergate. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 183−192.

Cohn, L. D., & Westenberg, P. M. (2004). Intelligence and maturity: Meta-analytic evidence for the incremental and discriminant validity of

Loevinger's measure of ego development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 760−772.

Colby, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1987). The measurement of moral judgment: Theoretical foundations and research validations, and standard issue

scoring manual, Vols. 1–2. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Commons, M. L.,&Richards, F.A. (2003). Four postformal stages. In J.Demick&C. Andreoletti (Eds.),Handbook of adult development (pp. 199−220).

New York: Kluwer Academic.

Commons, M. L., Trudeau, E. J., Stein, S. A., Richards, F. A., & Krause, S. R. (1998). The existence of developmental stages as shown by the

hierarchical complexity of tasks. Developmental Review, 8, 237−278.

Cook-Greuter, S. R. (1999). Postautonomous ego development: A study of its nature and measurement. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60,

06B. (UMI No. 993312).

Cook-Greuter, S. R. (2004). Making the case for a developmental perspective. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36, 275−281.

Day, D. V.,& Lance, C. E. (2004). Understanding the development of leadership complexity through latent growthmodeling. In D. V. Day, S. J. Zaccaro,

& S. M. Halpin (Eds.), Leader development for transforming organizations (pp. 41−69). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Demick, J., & Andreoletti, C. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of adult development. New York: Kluwer Academic.

Drath, W. (1990). Managerial strengths and weaknesses as functions of the development of personal meaning. Journal of Applied Behavioral

Science, 26, 483−499.

Drath, W. (2001). The deep blue sea: Rethinking the source of leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Drath, W., & Palus, C. (1994). Making common sense: Leadership as meaning-making in communities of practice. Greensboro, NC: Center for

Creative Leadership.

Drath, W., & Van Velsor, E. (2006). Constructive-developmental coaching. In S. Ting & P. Scisco (Eds.), The CCL handbook of coaching: A guide

for the leader coach (pp. 312−343). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dukerich, J. M., Nichols, M. L., Elm, D. R., & Vollrath, D. A. (1990). Moral reasoning in groups: Leaders make a difference. Human Relations, 43,

473−493.

Eigel, K. M. (1998). Leader effectiveness: A constructive developmental view and investigation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59, 06B.

(UMI No. 9836315).

Fingarette, H. (1963). The self in transformation. New York: Harper and Row.

Fischer, K. W., & Bidell, T. R. (2006). Dynamic development of action, thought, and emotion. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), 6th ed.

Theoretical models of human development. Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 1 (pp. 313–399). New York: Wiley.

Fisher, D., Merron, K., & Torbert, W. R. (1987). Human development and managerial effectiveness. Group & Organization Studies, 12, 257−273.

Fisher, D., & Torbert, W. R. (1991). Transforming managerial practice: Beyond the achiever stage. Research in Organizational Change and

Development, 5, 143−173.

Gammons, A.W. (1994). Ego development and teachers in peer leadership positions: Implications for effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts

International, 55, 03A. (UMI No. 9418110).

Gioia, D. A., & Chittipeddi, K. (1991). Sensemaking and sensegiving in strategic change initiation. Strategic Management Journal, 12, 443−448.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Hall, B. P. (1995). Values shift: A guide to personal and organizational transformation. Rockport, MA: Twin Lights.

Harris, L.S. (2005). An examination of executive leadership effectiveness using constructive developmental theory. Unpublished master's thesis,

University of Georgia, Athens.

Hasegawa, B.A. (2004). The teacher leader role shift: A constructive-developmental study of teacher leaders' experiences of role transition and

authority relationships. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64, 08A. (UMI No. 3100144).

Hauser, S. T. (1976). Loevinger's model and measure of ego development: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 928−955.

Heifetz, R. A. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hirsch, J.A. (1988). Toward a cognitive-developmental theory of strategy formulation among practicing physicians. Dissertation Abstracts

International, 49, 08A. (UMI No. 8814175).

Hoare, C. (Ed.). (2006). Handbook of adult development and learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hooijberg, R., & Quinn, R. E. (1992). Behavioral complexity and the development of effective managerial leaders. In R. L. Phillips & J. G. Hunt

(Eds.), Strategic leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective (pp. 161−175). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Hy, L. X., & Loevinger, J. (1996). Measuring ego development (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Jaques, E. (1996). Requisite organization: A total system for effective managerial organization and managerial leadership for the 21st century.

Arlington, VA: Cason Hall.

Jaques, E., & Clement, S. D. (1991). Executive leadership: A practical guide to managing complexity. Arlington, VA: Cason Hall.

Kegan, R. (1980). Making meaning: The constructive-developmental approach to persons and practice. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 58,

373−380.

Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (1984). Adult leadership and adult development: A constructionist view. In B. Kellerman (Ed.), Leadership:

Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 199−230). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (2001). How the way we talk can change the way we work: Seven languages for transformation. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to socialization. In D. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization:

Theory and research. New York: Rand McNally.

Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on moral development. Volume one: The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row.

Kuhnert, K. W. (1994). Transforming leadership: Developing people through delegation. In B. Bass & B. Avolio (Eds.), Improving organizational

effectiveness through transformational leadership (pp. 10−25). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kuhnert, K.W., & Lewis, P. (1987). Transactional and transformational leadership: A constructive/developmental analysis. Academy of Management

Review, 12, 648−657.

Lahey, L., Souvaine, E., Kegan, R., Goodman, R., & Felix, S. (1988). A guide to the subject–object interview: Its administration and interpretation.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Graduate School of Education Subject–Object Research Group.

Laske, O. E. (1999). An integrated model of developmental coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 51, 139−159.

Laske, O. E. (2000). Foundations of scholarly consulting: The Developmental Structure/Process Tool (DSPT). Consulting Psychology Journal:

Practice and Research, 52, 178−200.

Leigh, J. (2002, August). Developing corporate citizens: Linking organizational developmental theory and corporate responsibility. Paper presented

at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Denver, CO.

Lewis, P., Forsythe, G. B., Sweeney, P., Bartone, P., Bullis, C., & Snook, S. (2005). Identity development during the college years: Findings from

the West Point Longitudinal Study. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 357−373.

Lewis, P., & Jacobs, T. O. (1992). Individual differences in strategic leadership capacity: A constructive/developmental view. In R. L. Phillips & J. G.

Hunt (Eds.), Strategic leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective (pp. 121−138). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Loevinger, J. (1979). Construct validity of the Sentence Completion Test of ego development. Applied Psychological Measurement, 3, 281−311.

Loevinger, J., & Wessler, R. (1970). Measuring ego development, vol. 1: Construction of a sentence completion test. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., & Freiberg, S. J. (1999). Understanding the dynamics of leadership: The role of follower self-concepts in the leader/

follower relationship. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 78, 167−203.

Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and

leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 343−378.

Lord, R. G., & Hall, R. J. (2005). Identity, deep structure, and the development of leadership skill. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 591−615.

Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A metaanalytic

review of the MLQ literature. The Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385−425.

Manners, J., & Durkin, K. (2001). A critical review of the validity of ego development theory and its measurement. Journal of Personality

Assessment, 77, 541−567.

Matilis, S. (2005). The social processes of organizational sensemaking. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 21−49.

Mehltretter, G.W. (1995). The contribution of complexity of mental processing and stage of ego development to transforming leadership. Dissertation

Abstracts International, 57, 03A. (UMI No. 9621946).

Merron, K., Fisher, D., & Torbert, W. F. (1987). Meaning making and management action. Group & Organization Studies, 12, 274−286.

Modgil, S., & Modgil, C. (1986). Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and controversy. Philadelphia, PA: Falmer Press.

Moshman, D. (2003). Developmental change in adulthood. In J. Demick & C. Andreoletti (Eds.), Handbook of adult development (pp. 43−59). New

York: Kluwer Academic.

Newman, D. L., Tellegen, A., & Bouchard, T. J. (1998). Individual differences in adult ego development: Sources of influence in twins reared apart.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 985−995.

Palus, C. J., & Drath, W. H. (1995). Evolving leaders: A model for promoting leadership development in programs. Greensboro, NC: Center for

Creative Leadership.

Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). (2003). Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Perry, W. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in a child. New York: Basic Books.

Rest, J. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Rooke, D., & Torbert, B. (1998). Organizational transformation as a function of CEO's developmental stage. Organization Development Journal, 16,

11−28.

Rooke, D., & Torbert, W. R. (2005). Seven transformations of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 83(4), 66−76.

Roth, S. E. (1996). Exploration of ego development of teachers and principal as it relates to the professional growth of staff: A case study.

Dissertation Abstracts International, 58, 05A. (UMI No. 9732650).

Selman, R. (1974). The development and conceptions of interpersonal relationships, Vols. 1–2. Publication of the Harvard-Judge Baker Social

Reasoning Project, Harvard University.

Sinnott, J. D. (1996). The developmental approach: Postformal thought as adaptive intelligence. In F. Blanchard-Fields & T. M. Hess (Eds.),

Perspectives on cognitive change in adulthood and aging (pp. 358−383). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Slaten, J. R. (1999). A study of the relationship between Texas superintendents moral stage development and leadership style. Dissertation Abstracts

International, 60, 04A. (UMI No. 9925673).

Smith, S. (1980). Ego development and the problem of power and agreement in organizations. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41, 05B.

(UMI No. 8023872).

Snarey, J. R. (1985). Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review of Kohlbergian research. Psychological Bulletin, 97,

202−232.

Snell, R. S. (1996). Complementing Kohlberg:Mapping the ethical reasoning used by managers for their own dilemma cases. Human Relations, 49, 23−49.

Spillett, M. (1995).Women student leaders' constructions of leadership: A developmental perspective. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 06A.

(UMI No. 9534635).

Steeves, R.A. (1997). Why leaders are effective: An examination into leader developmental level and leader–follower developmental fit as predictors

of effective leadership. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58, 02A. (UMI No. AAI9723898).

Stodgill, R. (1970). A review of research on the Leader Behavior Description Questionaire (Form XII): An experimental revision. Columbus, OH:

The Ohio State University Press.

Strang, S. E. (2006). Big five personality and leadership development levels as predictors of leader performance. Unpublished master's thesis,

University of Georgia, Athens.

Torbert, W. R. (1987). Managing the corporate dream: Restructuring for long-term success. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.

Torbert, W. R. (1991). The power of balance: Transforming self, society, and scientific inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Torbert,W. R. (1994). Cultivating postformal adult development: Higher stages and contrasting interventions. In M. E. Miller & S. R. Cook-Greuter

(Eds.), Transcendence and mature thought in adulthood (pp. 181−203). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Torbert, B. & Associates. (2004). Action inquiry: The secret of timely and transforming leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Kohler.

Trevino, L. K. (1986). Ethical decision making in organizations: A person–situation interactionist model. Academy of Management Review, 11,

601−617.

Trevino, L. K. (1992). Moral reasoning and business ethics: Implications for research, education, and management. Journal of Business Ethics, 11,

445−459.

Trevino, L. K., & Youngblood, S. A. (1990). Bad apples in bad barrels: A causal analysis of ethical decision-making behavior. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 75, 378−385.

van Knippenberg, D., van Knippenberg, B., De Cremer, D., & Hogg, M. A. (2004). Leadership, self, and identity: A review and research agenda.

The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 825−856.

Van Velsor, E., & Drath,W. H. (2004). A lifelong developmental perspective on leader development. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The

Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 383−414). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (1988). The new leadership: Managing participation in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wagner, T., Kegan, R., Lahey, L., Lemons, R.W., Garnier, J., Helsing, D., et al. (2006). Change leadership: A practical guide to transforming our

schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Weathersby, R. (1993). Sri Lankan managers' leadership conceptualizations as a function of ego development. In J. Demick & P. Miller (Eds.),

Development in the workplace (pp. 67−90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Weick, K. E. (1979). The social psychology of organizing (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139−145.

Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Boston: Shambhala.

Wilber, K. (2000). A theory of everything: An integral vision for business, politics, science, and spirituality. Boston: Shambhala.

Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Yukl, G., & Tracey, B. (1992). Consequences of influence tactics used with subordinates, peers, and the boss. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,

525−535.

Zaccaro, S. J. (1999). Social complexity and the competencies required for effective military leadership. In J. G. Hunt, G. E. Dodge, & L. Wong

(Eds.), Out-of-the-box leadership: Transforming the twenty-first century army and other top-performing organizations (pp. 131−152). Stamford,

CT: JAI Press.

TABLE 3 ". Use of Politicsa

Conflict, power, and politics

Proposition 2: Conflict is not a sufficient condition for

the use of politics. Rather, conflict leads to politics only

when power is centralized.

TABLE 4

Conflict on Top Management Teams

p753. The organization of politics

Proposition 3: The greater the use of politics within a top

management team, the greater the likelihood of stable alliance

patterns.

TABLE 5

Stability of Alliance Patterns

Coalitions and demographics of the team members

Proposition 4: When the use of politics is high, the basis

of alliance is likely to be similarity of demographic

attributes.

TABLE 6

Demographics of Stable Coalitionsa

Effects of time

p760 Top management, team politics and firm performance

Proposition 7: The greater the use of politics within the

top management team, the poorer the performance of a

firm.

TABLE 7 Firm Performance

p765 Toward a mid -ange theory of politics in High-Velocity environments

FIGURE 1

A Model of the Politics of Strategic Decision Making

in High-Velocity Environments8

Extracted Annotations (10/30/2017, 12:09:59 PM)

"How do politics affect the strategic decision processes of top executives in the "high-velocity" microcomputer industry? We induced a midrange theory linking power, politics, and performance from a study of eight firms in the microcomputer industry. We found that politics-the observable, but often covert, actions by which executives enhance their power to influence decisions-arise from power centralization. Autocratic CEOs engage in politics and generate political behavior among subordinates. We also found that politics are not organized into shifting and temporary alliances based on issues. Rather, they are organized into stable coalitions based on demographic characteristics such as age and office location. Finally, politics within top management teams are associated with poor firm performance." (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:737)

"examples of political activity including agenda control, withholding information, and behind-the-scenes coalition formation" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:737)

"Politics are the We would like to thank our graduate assistants, Theresa Lant, Mike Boehm, Anita Callahan, Dave Ellison, and Paul McCright, for their invaluable help. We also benefited from the comments of Howard Aldrich, Deborah Ancona, Graham Astley, Jim Dean, Jane Dutton, George Huber, John Kimberly, Jim March, Elaine Romanelli, Dick Scott, Bob Sutton, our reviewers, and the participants at the Institute for Management Science Workshop on Organizations, Industrial Engineering Department Seminar, and National Institute of Mental Health Colloquium at Stanford. 737" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:737)

Politics are the

(note on p.737)

"These actions include behind-the-scenes coalition formation, offline lobbying and cooptation attempts, withholding information, and controlling agendas (Pettigrew, 1973; Pfeffer, 1981). Politics contrast with the straightforward influence tactics of open and forthright discussion, with full sharing of information, in settings open to all decision makers." (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:738)

"high velocity, we mean those environments in which there is rapid and discontinuous change in demand, competitors, technology, or regulation, so that information is often inaccurate, unavailable, or obsolete (Bourgeois Eisenhardt, 1988). 2 &" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:738)

"We organized our research around three questions. First, why do politics emerge?" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:738)

"Second, what is the shape of politics?" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:738)

"Academy of Management Journal December 738 observable, but often covert, actions by which executives enhance their power to influence a decision. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission." (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:738)

Politics are the observable, but often covert, actions by which executives enhance their power to influence a decision. (note on p.738)

"Third, how do politics affect firm performance?" (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:739)

"Proposition The greater the centralization of power in 1: a chief executive, the greater the use of politics within a top management team." (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988:743)

References

Allison, G. T. 1971. Essence of decision. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.

Astley, W. G. 1978. Sources of power in organizational life. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,

University of Washington, Seattle.

Bachrach, S. B., & Lawler, E. J. 1980. Power and politics in organizations. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Baldridge, J. V. 1971. Power and conflict in the university. New York: John Wiley.

Bell, G. 1984. The mini and micro industries. IEEE Transactions on Computing, October.

Bourgeois, L. J. III. 1980. Performance and consensus. Strategic Management Journal, 1: 227-248.

Bourgeois, L. J. III, & Eisenhardt, K. M. 1987. Strategic decision processes in Silicon Valley: The

anatomy of a "living dead." California Management Review, 30(1): 143-159.

Bourgeois, L. J. III, & Eisenhardt, K. M. 1988. Strategic decision processes in high velocity

environments: Four cases in the microcomputer industry. Management Science, 34:

816-835.

Butcher, L. 1988. Accidental millionaire: The rise and fall of Steve Jobs at Apple Computer.

New York: Paragon House.

Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. 1963. A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:

Prentice-Hall.

Daft, R. L. 1983. Organization theory and design. St. Paul: West Publishing.

Dean, J., Sharfman, M., & Ford, C. 1987. Strategic organizational decision-making: A multiple·

context model. Unpublished working paper, Pennsylvania State University, University

Park.

Dess, G., & Beard, D. 1984. Dimensions of organizational task environments. Administrative

Science Quarterly, 29: 52-73.

Eisenhardt, K. M. 1988. Making fast strategic decisions. Working paper, Stanford University.

Eisenhardt, K. M., & Bourgeois, L. J. III. 1989. Charting strategic decisions in the microcomputer

industry: Profile of an industry star. In M. Van Glinow & S. Mohrmann (Eds.), Managing

complexity in high technology organizations, systems, and people: forthcoming. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Festinger, L., Shathter, S., & Back, K. 1950. Social pressures in informal groups: A study of

human factors in housing. New York: Harper.

Gamson, W. A. 1961. A theory of coalition formation. American Sociological Review, 26:

373-382.

Gandz, J., & Murray, V. V. 1980. The experience of workplace politics. Academy of Management

Journal, 23: 237-251.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. 1967. The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative

research. London: Wiedenfeld and Nicholson.

Hage, J. 1980. Theories of organizations: Form, process, and transformation. New York:

Wiley.

Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. 1984. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top

managers. Academy of Management Review, 9: 193-206.

Hinings, C., Hickson, D., Pennings, J., & Schneck, R. 1974. Structural conditions in interorganizational

power. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19: 22-44.

Jay, A. 1967. Management and Machiavelli. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Leavitt, H. J. 1951. Effects of certain communication patterns on group performance. Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46: 38-50.

March, J. G. 1962. The business firm as a political coalition. Journal of Politics, 24: 662-678.

March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. 1976. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen, Norway:

Universitetsforlaget.

Mintzberg, H. 1979. An emerging strategy of "direct" research. Administrative Science Quarterly,

24: 580-589.

Mintzberg, H. 1983. Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Murnighan, J. K. 1978. Models of coalition behavior: Game theoretic, social psychological, and

political perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 85: 1130-1153.

Newcomb, T. M. 1956. The prediction of interpersonal attraction. American Psychologist, 11:

575-586.

Newcomb, T. M. 1961. The acquaintance process. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Patchen, M. 1974. The locus and basis of influence on organizational decisions. Organizational

Behavior and Human Performance, 11: 195-221.

Pettigrew, A. 1973. The politics of organizational decision making. London: Tavistock.

Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. 1974. Organizational decision making as a political process: The case

of the university budget. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19: 135-151.

Pfeffer, J. 1981. Power in organizations. Marshfield, Mass.: Pitman Publishing.

Riker, W. H. 1962. The theory of political coalitions. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

Schumpeter, J. A. 1934. The theory of economic development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard

University Press.

Staw, B. M., Sandelands, L. E., & Dutton, J. E. 1981. Threat-rigidity effects in organizational

behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26: 501-524.

Stevenson, W., Pearce, J., & Porter, L. 1985. The concept of "coalition" in organization theory

and research. Academy of Management Review, 10: 256-268.

Sutton, R.I., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Jucker, J. V. 1986. Managing organizational decline: Lessons

from Atari. Organizational Dynamics, 14: 17-29.

Sutton, R. I., & Callahan, A. L. 1987. The stigma of bankruptcy: Spoiled organizational image

and its management. Academy of Management Journal, 30: 405-436.

Thompson, J. 1967. Organizations in action. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Wagner, G., Pfeffer, J., & O'Reilly, C. 1984. Organizational demography and turnover in top

management teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29: 74-92.

White, R., & Lippitt, R. 1968. Leader behavior and member reaction in three "social climates."

In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.), Group dynamics: 318-385. New York: Harper & Row.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case study research: Design and methods. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage

Publications.