THE ANCIENT ATHENIAN AGORA
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"Every nation is proud of his spiritual possession. But the Greek race standing taller than any other, because it has the merit to be the mother of all civilization. "
Ulrich von Wilamowitz Mðllendorf, (1848-1931), German philologist, a leading interpreter of the ancient Greek civilization.
Whenever we speak of ancient Greece and the achievements of their civilization, we inevitably find ourselves asking the question “Why the Greeks?” What was it that led this numerically small people of the Mediterranean to emerge first from the Archaic stage, in which all other ancient peoples were at a standstill, and strive towards the accomplishments of the Classical period?
To explain the singularity of ancient Greek civilization, we identify something that no other people had at the time as the baseline value of the ancient Greeks: the capacity to question. That is to say, while the predominant values of other peoples could be summed up in the view that “we must hand down to our children the world we inherited from our forefathers,” the ancient Greeks were the first to challenge this perception, by submitting to judgment those ideologies and convictions that had been passed on to them. This is the common starting point for philosophy and democracy.
But such questioning at the time, unlike today, was far from the norm; it could not have appeared on its own, as it presupposes an inner tendency of people to wish to surpass certain limits. And this disposition for transcendence goes hand-in-hand with the element of competition: the desire to be tested, to confront, change, overturn and improve. In such a context, extrapolating our thoughts, one could say that a key concept for understanding and explaining ancient Greek civilization isthe idea of agon (struggle, contest, competition).
Thus, questioning and agon were part of a single viewpoint, an overall life stance, which pervaded all manifestations of ancient Greek life, permeated all activities and was the driving force behind all expression of culture. In ancient Greek society, the concept of agon underlay the view that anything can be achieved as the result of effort, healthy rivalry and noble competition.
Often called the "birthplace of civilisation", Ancient Greece heralded numerous advances in philosophy, science, engineering and mathematics which have shaped our understanding of the modern world.
Western civilization has been influenced by many cultures, but his birth took place in ancient Greece. Apart from philosophers such as Aristotle and Socrates, Olympian gods, the beginnings of democracy and conquerors such as Alexander the Great, Greece brought as a contribution to mankind cool ideas that enriched the art of architecture and construction.
Our hearts have been moved by the tragedies of Aeschylus and Euripides.
Our understanding of the world and our place in it has been expanded by Socrates and Aristotle.
Most of all, we’re indebted to Greece for the most precious of gifts -- the truth, the understanding that as individuals of free will, we have the right and the capacity to govern ourselves. For it was here, 25 centuries ago, in the rocky hills of this city, that a new idea emerged. Demokratia. Kratos -- the power, the right to rule -- comes from demos -- the people. The notion that we are citizens -- not servants, but stewards of our society. The concept of citizenship -- that we have both rights and responsibilities. The belief in equality before the law -- not just for a few, but for the many; not just for the majority, but also the minority. These are all concepts that grew out of this rocky soil.
Of course, the earliest forms of democracy here in Athens were far from perfect. The rights of ancient Athens were not extended to women or to slaves. But Pericles explained, “our constitution favors the many instead of the few…this is why it is called a democracy.”
Athenians also knew that, however noble, ideas alone were not enough. To have meaning, principles must be enshrined in laws and protected by institutions, and advanced through civic participation. And so they gathered in a great assembly to debate and decide affairs of state, each citizen with the right to speak, casting their vote with a show of hands, or choosing a pebble -- white for yes, black for no. Laws were etched in stone for all to see and abide by. Courts, with citizen jurors, upheld that rule of law.
Politicians weren’t always happy because sometimes the stones could be used to ostracize, banish those who did not behave themselves.
But across the millennia that followed, different views of power and governance have often prevailed. Throughout human history, there have been those who argue that people cannot handle democracy, that they cannot handle self-determination, they need to be told what to do. A ruler has to maintain order through violence or coercion or an iron fist. There’s been a different concept of government that says might makes right, or that unchecked power can be passed through bloodlines. There’s been the belief that some are superior by virtue of race or faith or ethnicity, and those beliefs so often have been used to justify conquest and exploitation and war.
But through all this history, the flame first lit here in Athens never died. It was ultimately nurtured by a great Enlightenment. It was fanned by America’s founders, who declared that “We, the People” shall rule; that all men are created equal and endowed by our Creator with certain inalienable rights.
The basic longing to live with dignity, the fundamental desire to have control of our lives and our future, and to want to be a part of determining the course of our communities and our nations -- these yearnings are universal. They burn in every human heart.
Our minds have been opened by the histories of Herodotus and Thucydides.
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Heritage of history reflected in these postage 1890-1940
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Agora Picture Books
The primary purpose of the Agora Picture Book series is to enliven the experience of a visitor to the Athenian Agora, excavated by the American School since 1931. While drawing on the object and monuments that can be viewed on a visit to the site, these well-illustrated guides attempt to add some human color to the dry material remains. A number of the concise guides have become popular supplementary texts for undergraduate and graduate classes in classical civilization. Since 1998 the Picture Books have been published in color.
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for more information, and to download the PICTURE BOOKS, please visit the following web-page
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for more information, and to view the YOUTUBE VIDEOS, please visit the following web-page
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Introduction
Classical Athens saw the rise of an achievement unparalleled in history. Perikles, Aischylos, Sophokles, Plato, Demosthenes, and Praxiteles represent just a few of the statesmen and philosophers, playwrights and orators, historians and artists who flourished there in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., when Athens numbered among the most powerful and influential city-states in Greece. Collectively they were responsible for sowing the seeds of Western civilization.
Of the many gifts passed down to us by the Athenians, including philosophy, theater, painting, sculpture, and architecture, none is more significant than their chosen form of government: democracy, rule by the people. Indeed, it can be convincingly argued that all the other achievements depended first on how the city was governed, on the open and free society that respected the dignity, rights, and aspirations of the individual.
The two books presented here (The Birth of Democracy and The Athenian Citizen) illustrate and tell the story of the development and practice of democracy in Athens. Most of the material presented comes from the excavations of the Athenian Agora, carried out by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens from 1931 until today.
The Athenian Agora c. 500 B.C. Model by Petros Demetriades and Kostas Papoulias, Athens, Agora Museum. Around the sides of this great square, the Athenians built most of their civic buildings; hence the Agora became the center of the Athenian democracy. The Agora seems to have been laid out as a public area late in the 6th century B.C., presumably under the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons. In 500 B.C., soon after the Kleisthenic reforms, new buildings were added. Most important, perhaps, was the Bouleuterion (Senate House), where the newly created senate of 500 members representing the ten "tribes" of Athens met most days to consider legislation for the city. Also built at about the same time was the Royal Stoa which housed the offices of the king archon, the official in charge of religious matters and the laws.
The Athenian Agora c. 400 B.C. Model by Fetros Demetriades and Kostas Papoulias, Athens, Agora Museum. The 5th century B.C. saw the rise of Athens to a position of extraordinary prominence. During this century the Athenians fought and defeated the Persians, refined their democratic system under the leadership of Perikles, and built the great temples on the Acropolis. The last decades of the century saw them engaged in a terrible and costly war with Sparta, a war that was the democracy's harshest test. The model of the Agora in 400 B.C. shows the civic center at a time when Athens had provided herself with all the public buildings necessary for the functioning of the fully developed democratic system. The buildings shown on the model served in one form or another for the next several generations.
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GREECE ISATHENSEXPERIENCEDISCOVERCULTUREPAST
Secrets of the Agora
John Leonard | October 8th, 2015
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If you look around the Athenian Agora, you will discover that there are five interesting places waiting for you to explore them.
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STOA OF ATTALOS
The stoa, a gift from the King of Pergamon (2nd cent. BC), was reconstructed in the 1950s. Where once it had shops, now it houses the agora museum. Note the juror selection device, ceramic baby seat and pot-sherd ostracism ballots, scratched with “Themistocles”. Also, shoe nails and eyelets from the shoemaker’s shop and small vials, perhaps for poison.
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The Athenian Agora
Don’t be Agora-phobic
As the central square of the ancient city, the agora was where everyone crossed paths, from philosphers and politicians to peddlers, priests and prostitutes
The Athenian (or Greek) Agora was the beating heart of ancient Athens, a crossroads in the middle of the city, pulsing with all the different people and ordinary activities that made up daily life in the age-old city of Athena. This large, low-lying area in the northern shadow of the Acropolis, by the time of Themistocles, Pericles and Socrates in the 5th century BC, already had a long history, once serving as a place for prehistoric and Iron Age settlement and burial, later as a focus of religious activities, a public gathering spot, a venue for commerce and currency-exchange, as well as a political, legislative and administrative center for the often-challenged but resilient Athenian democracy.
Today, the Athenian Agora is a quiet refuge within bustling modern Athens, an archaeological park that offers shady trees, winding paths, venerable ruins of profound historic significance for world history, a reconstructed Hellenistic-era stoa (a colonnaded walkway, with shops – now converted into a fascinating small museum) and one of the best preserved (not reconstructed!) ancient temples to be found anywhere in Greece.
As you enter the Athenian Agora, you have a choice – head straight for the Stoa of Attalos Museum, where you can orient yourself with maps, information panels and intriguing exhibits from the American School of Classical Studies’ archaeological excavations, ongoing since the 1930s, or begin exploring immediately, following one of many paths and making your own “new discoveries” at every turn. Entrance to the agora can be made either from the Acropolis side or from the opposite, northern side, not far from Monastiraki metro station.
“ Today, the Athenian Agora is a quiet refuge within bustling modern Athens, an archaeological park that offers shady trees, winding paths and venerable ruins of profound historic significance.”
THE STATE PRISON
If you enjoy getting off the beaten track, seek out this obscure ruin, where Socrates likely spent his final days. Located in the agora’s wild southwestern area, down a narrow path (Street of the Marble Workers), over a tiny bridge crossing a deep ancient drain, this building once featured a single gateway, guards’ quarters and a central corridor flanked by small cells.
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WATER CLOCK
At the front of the Heliaia (law courts), this mechanism, once used for timing law suits and trials, consisted of a water reservoir with a drain, topped with a measuring device that indicated the falling water level and the passage of the time. The tank had to be refilled after 17 hours. Lengths of trials varied (up to one day), but individual litigants’ speechers were closely timed.
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THE PANATHENAIC WAY
This preserved section of pavement, near the agora’s Acropolis entrance, marks the path of the Panathenaic Way, the avenue followed every four years by the celebrants of Athena’s great festival. The Way began at the Kerameikos’ Dipylon Gate, crossed Athens’ central square diagonally and led up to the Acropolis, now carrying on its worn stones traces of many ancient feet.
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One of the Tritons (mermen) that once adorned the Odeon of Agrippa (ca. 15 BC), a music hall accommodating up to 1,000 people.
HEPHAISTEION
On top of Agoraios Kolonos hill, which is delimiting the Athenian Agora to the west, stands the temple of Hephaestus and Athena, broadly known as Thisseion. It is one of the best preserved ancient temples, partly because it was transformed into a Christian church. According to ancient geographer Pausanias, two deities were jointly worshipped in the temple: god Hephaestus and goddess Athena Ergani, who was protecting mainly the cottage industries.
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INFO
ANCIENT AGORA AND MUSEUM
24 Adrianou • Tel. (+30) 210.321.0185
Opening hours: Daily 08.00 – 20.00 • Tickets: Full: € 4, Reduced: € 2
Stoa of Attalos (2nd cent. BC), a Hellenistic-era “mall” with 42 shop spaces on two levels. Destroyed in AD 267 by the invading Herulians.
On its northern side, the ancient agora has been cut by a train track (late 19th century) and overbuilt by Adrianou Street and the Monastiraki neighborhood. If you look down into the excavation area on the right-hand, northern side of Adrianou, you will see the stepped architectural remains of the famous Painted Stoa, where Zenon of Cyprus first introduced Athenians to Stoic philosophy.
After entering the agora gate, you might turn right to the line of now-ruinous buildings once adorning the foot of the Kolonos Agoraios hill. Here was the governmental center of ancient Athens, including (R to L) the Royal Stoa (for administration of religious activities, laws), the Stoa of Zeus (possibly an administrative and dining center), the Metroon (official records hall), the Bouleuterion (council chamber) and the Tholos (executive council’s lounge, for nourishment and rest). Socrates is known to have frequented the Stoa of Zeus; he also served on the executive council, used the Tholos and likely discussed philosophy with young Athenian men in the House of Simon the Shoemaker, opposite the Tholos.
Among the agora’s many temples, altars and other shrines, dedicated to gods including Apollo, Rhea and Ares, there was especially the hilltop temple of Hephaistos and Athena. This mid-5th century BC Doric temple, erected contemporaneously with the Parthenon, was particularly important to metal workers and other artisans, many of whom had workshops nearby. In the Hephaisteion’s colorful later history, it was converted into a Christian church, a 19th century storehouse for antiquities and an execution ground during the Greek Civil War.
Along the agora’s south side were the Heliaia (law courts), South Stoa and Mint. Commercial activities took place in the South Stoa, which also had dining rooms, and in the Stoa of Attalos. In the agora’s center, ancient visitors could read public announcements, seek the best rate at the money-changers’ tables or take in street performances by Thespis and other early actors, the progenitors of modern drama.
“ Socrates is known to have frequented the Stoa of Zeus; he also served on the executive council, used the Tholos and likely discussed philosophy with young Athenian men in the House of Simon the Shoemaker, opposite the Tholos. ”
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View of the Athenian Agora, center of the basic institutions of Athenian democracy, with the Acropolis in the background.
© Clairy Moustafellou
Understanding the Agora
The structure, the functions and the dynamics of the Athenian democracy in antiquity.
John McK Camp II | October 9th, 2015
Set on gently sloping ground northwest of the acropolis, the Agora public square was laid out in the 6th century BC and has been under excavation for 85 years by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, under the supervision of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture.
Here have been found the buildings which housed the first recorded democracy (magistrates’ offices, law courts and assembly places), along with the objects used every day to make sure the system worked as it should (laws and regulations inscribed on stone, allotment machines, water clocks and ballots). A visitor to the Agora in antiquity would have occasion to see all three branches of the government in action: executive, legislative and judicial.
EXECUTIVE: THE ARCHONS AND THE ROYAL STOA
Coming from the main city gate, our visitor entered the Agora at its northwest corner and immediately came upon the Royal Stoa (Stoa Basileus), seat of the King Archon. There were, of course, no monarchs in democratic Athens, but the second in command was known as the King Archon; he was a powerful individual, responsible for religious matters and the laws. The stoa was his headquarters, in which he heard most of the cases brought before him. It was here, for instance, that he heard the charges of impiety laid against Socrates in 399 BC and determined that there was, in fact, sufficient evidence to send the matter to a full court of 500 jurors. The king also administered the annual oath of office to all incoming officials and magistrates, who swore to uphold the democracy and not take bribes, lest they pay a huge fine. The oath was performed at or on a massive unworked stone (lithos) which rested on the steps of the stoa. The building itself was lined with marble slabs recording in stone the constitution and laws of the city.
Like most Athenian magistrates, the king was not elected; almost all were chosen by allotment rather than election. Only a handful of positions were elective, those that required real expertise and experience: the water commissioner, some of the treasurers, as well as the generals. These roles were too important to leave to the luck of the draw. Pericles, for instance, seems never to have served as a senior archon, but showed his influence by repeated election as general of his tribe.
Whether elected or allotted, all Athenian officials were subject to an official, regular opportunity for the populace to remove a problem in the political system. A serious application of term limits, known as ostracism. Once a year the Athenians gathered in the Agora and took a simple vote: is anyone aiming at a tyranny, is anyone a threat to the democracy? If a simple majority voted yes, the people gathered again several weeks later. On this second occasion they brought with them a potsherd (ostrakon), on which they had inscribed the name of the individual they thought was a problem. The man with the most votes lost and he was exiled for 10 years. Many Athenian politicians took one of these extended vacations, courtesy of the Athenian people, and their votes, scratched onto sherds, were readily discarded and have been found by the hundreds throughout the excavations.
“ Once a year the Athenians gathered in the Agora and took a simple vote: is anyone aiming at a tyranny, is anyone a threat to the democracy? ”
Men vote to ostracize a fellow citizen in the Athenian Agora (colour lithograph), Herget, Herbert M. (1885-1950), National Geographic Creative
© GettyImages/IdealImage
“ Once a decision had been made, the proposal was written up and posted on the face of a long statue base, the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes, which lay within the square itself, just to the east. ”
LEGISLATIVE: THE BOULE AND THE BOULEUTERION
Moving south from the Royal Stoa, the visitor would pass several buildings dedicated to gods (Zeus, Apollo and the Mother of the Gods) before arriving at the next government building, the bouleuterion. This was the meeting-place of the Boule, a council made up of 500 Athenians, chosen by lot. This may at first seem odd, but when one considers the cost, corruption, inefficiency and poor results of many modern democratic elections, it seems hard to believe we could do worse than the random choice of 500 individuals. Members of the boule served for a single year and they met most days, except during festivals, to consider and propose legislation. Once a decision had been made, the proposal was written up and posted on the face of a long statue base, the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes, which lay within the square itself, just to the east. All proposals had to be displayed for at least three days, so the citizens would have ample opportunity to read the proposal and discuss its merits. Every 10 days or so, the full citizen body met in assembly (Ekklesia) on the Pnyx, a large theatral area on the ridge to the southwest of the Agora. Here they would debate the proposal and then either approve it or vote it down. This dual passage of legislation is reflected in the opening of all Athenian laws inscribed on stone: “Approved by the boule and people (demos) of Athens”…
The Boule was managed by tribal contingents (prytaneis) of 50 councilors, who served in rotation for a month, acting as an executive committee. During their month in office, the prytaneis had as their headquarters the tholos, a round building just south of the bouleuterion. The prytaneis were fed at public expense and the tholos was their dining room. Cups and pitchers have been found all over the area, carrying the ligature ΔΕ, standing for demosion (public property) to make sure the prytaneis did not walk away with the state-owned crockery at the end of the meal. The fact that most of the vessels found were for wine suggests that perhaps the legislators were not always fully sober when they deliberated.
In addition to dining in the tholos, at least 17 prytaneis were expected to sleep there overnight. If some emergency arose, any messenger could go directly to the tholos to find 17 citizens serving as councilors, on duty and ready to deal with any issue. In this sense, the building represents the functional heart of the Athenian democracy, a symbolism not lost on the Thirty Tyrants who, during their brief reign in 404/403 BC, used the tholos as their headquarters.
Ostracism: Voting for or against forced exile to safeguard democracy “Ballots” in ancient Athens were pieces of broken pottery, on which ancient Athenians scratched the name of a politician they saw as a threat to democracy, in this case, Themistocles (Agora Museum)
© Corbis/Smart Magna
JUDICIARY: THE LAW COURTS
The bedrock of democracy is the legal system. Only an independent judiciary can guarantee the rights of all individuals and prevent abuses by the more powerful and privileged segments of society. The formation of the Athenian democracy was a process, not an event, and the first crucial step was taken by Solon in the 6th century BC, when he created “popular” courts, where individuals were tried by their fellow citizens, not just aristocrats or magistrates. The Athenians had many courts all over the city, at least one of which has been identified under the north end of the later Stoa of Attalos.
Because they were so essential, the courts were among the most regulated sectors of government. To ensure a fair hearing, the minimum Athenian jury was comprised of 200 citizens, while courts of 500 were not uncommon.
Elaborate allotment machines assigned the jurors to the courts so there was no way to influence an Athenian jury without bribing all of the literally thousands of citizens eligible for jury duty each year. Clepsydras (terracotta water clocks) guaranteed that each side would have the same amount of time to argue the case. And jurors were provided with two bronze ballots — one for guilty, the other for acquittal — which allowed them to arrive at a verdict in secret.
Day to day running of the city. In between meetings of the Assembly, 50 citizens were on call day and night for a month at a time. They lived in a circular building, the Tholos, on the corner of the Agora
© GettyImages/IdealImage
A DEMOCRACY NOT WILDLY DEMOCRATIC
There are both parallels and differences in how democracy was practiced in ancient Athens and the modern versions of today. Ancient Athenian democracy, by today’s standards, was not wildly democratic. Excluded from participation were women, a large number of slaves and a vast population of free Greeks from others cities who lived in Athens but had no citizen rights. That is, only a small and unknown proportion of the inhabitants had a direct vote in the democratic process.
On the other hand, if you were a participant, you were expected to play an active role, to “rule and be ruled in turn” as the phrase went. Both the modern and ancient systems were flawed, but they are usually regarded as better than any of the other options. Despite any flaws, the concept of equal citizenship, the protected rights of the individual, a communal civic awareness, as well as a sense of the corporate identity of the people developed over time and led to an entirely new Athenian society, one which endured in reality for 200 years and which has remained an ideal for another 2,500.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
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JOHN CAMP is Stavros Niarchos Foundation Professor of Classics at Randolph-Macon College, Virginia, Director of the Athenian Agora Excavations and author of many books on ancient Greece. His contribution to shedding light on Greece’s distinguished past spans nearly five decades.
Views of the open space in front of the double-colonnaded Stoa of Attalos, where important sculptures and architectural elements from the site of the Athenian Agora are displayed.
The Stoa of Attalos was reconstructed in the mid-1950s to serve as the Agora Museum.
© Panayiotis Tzamaros
A Tale of Two Stoas
Come rain or come shine, the Athenians gathered under their roofs to worship, shop, interact or simply find an audience
John McK Camp II | October 9th, 2015
Besides civic buildings, the Athenian Agora also provided basic amenities to the hundreds of people who congregated there each day. Two basic needs had to be met: water and shelter. Water was piped into two large fountain houses at the southwest and southeast corners of the square by means of subterranean aqueducts, usually made of baked clay. For shelter, the Athenians resorted to stoas. A stoa was any long colonnaded building, well adapted to the Greek climate and the needs of the people. The open colonnaded side provided good light and fresh air, while the roof and side walls provided protection from the sun in summer and wind and rain in winter. Stoas were often very large, capable of accommodating thousands of individuals, and they are found wherever many people were expected to gather: in sanctuaries, near theaters and particularly around agoras. The Athenian Agora had as many as six, two of which are of special interest.
Isometric reconstruction of the western end of the Painted Stoa (Stoa Poikile) (Source: American School of Classical Studies).
Winged, flying Nike, once an akroterion (roof ornament) from the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios (late 5th early 4th century BC). Through the Victory figure's movement, adheres to the body and clearly reveals its form (Agora Museum)
THE PAINTED STOA (ca. 470 BC)
The most recent excavations, at the northwest corner of the square, across modern Adrianou Street, are bringing to light the remains of a stoa of the Classical period, dated to about 475-470 BC. It is 50 meters long, with a row of columns of the Doric order outside, and a row of Ionic columns inside. Less than a third of the building has been uncovered thus far. If we are interpreting the ancient sources correctly, especially the traveler Pausanias who described Athens as he saw it around 150 AD, then this building should be identified as the Painted Stoa, one of the most famous buildings of ancient Athens.
The Painted Stoa (Stoa Poikile) was built at the time of Cimon, the predecessor of Pericles. Soon after it was built, it was decorated with handsome paintings done on wooden panels and from then on was known as the Painted Stoa. In a sense, one can regard the stoa as the first public art museum. For centuries, magnificent art had been produced all over the Middle East, the Mediterranean and Africa; but it was not for everyone, just the elite. It decorated the king’s palace, the walls of temples with limited access, as well as tombs. In Athens, the art was displayed in a large open building, set right on the edge of the public square, where anyone and everyone was free to enter. The paintings went up around 460 BC and 600 years later, Pausanias could still describe four of them, showing Athenian military exploits, both mythological and historical: the Athenians fighting Amazons, the Fall of Troy, the Athenians about to engage the Spartans and — most famous of all — the Athenians defeating the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC. By 400 AD the paintings were gone. The bishop Synesius visited Athens at that time and was a bitterly disappointed tourist; having come to see the famous paintings, he found they had recently been removed by a Roman proconsul.
“ In a sense, one can regard the stoa as the first public art museum. For centuries, magnificent art had been produced all over the Middle East, the Mediterranean and Africa; but it was not for everyone, just the elite. ”
Views of the open space in front of the double- colonnaded Stoa of Attalos
© Panayiotis Tzamaros
So we will not find the paintings; but the building has other interests. Unlike all the others around the Agora, the Painted Stoa had no specific function, nor did any magistrate or group of officials have priority of use. It was built and used as a hang-out and must have been the most public building of the city, full of Athenians with time on their hands. So anyone with a trade that required an audience would come to the Stoa, and we hear specifically of beggars, sword-swallowers and jugglers congregating there.
Another group who required an audience were philosophers, and when Zeno came to Athens from Cyprus around 300 BC he found the Stoa to be a useful place: he was allowed to use it, it was right on the central square and it was full of Athenians who were not too busy. Using it repeatedly, he and his followers became known — from their meeting-place — as the Stoics. So the remains coming to light constitute an important element in the development of western thought and philosophy.
“ Zeno found the Stoa to be a useful place: he was allowed to use it, it was right on the central square and it was full of Athenians who were not too busy. ”
Stoa of Attalos
“ The building dates from the Hellenistic period, a transitional time when Athens had lost all military, economic and political clout. ”
THE STOA OF ATTALOS (ca. 150 BC)
Another stoa in the Agora draws our immediate attention: the Stoa of Attalos II, reconstructed in 1953-1956 to serve as the Agora Museum. As one experiences it today, it provides an excellent sense of how an ancient stoa was meant to work, sheltering hundreds of people in an environment where the play of light and shadow inside changed constantly. The building dates from the Hellenistic period, a transitional time when Athens had lost all military, economic and political clout. Only in one sphere of influence did Athens remain dominant: education. The founding of the Academy by Plato (ca. 388 BC), the Lyceum by Aristotle (ca. 335 BC) and the Stoic school of philosophy by Zeno (ca. 300 BC) ensured that Athens was the educational center of the Mediterranean throughout antiquity, patronized by Hellenistic dynasts and then Roman nobility.
Such was the case of Attalos II, whose family ruled Pergamon, in what is now western Turkey. While still a prince, he came to Athens to study under the philosopher Carneades. Returning home and becoming king (159-138 BC), he gave the city this handsome stoa of marble, largely in appreciation of his happy college days in Athens. This is, in effect, an alumnus gift, of the sort familiar to anyone who has ever set foot on an American university campus, where every building carries a donor’s name.
What Attalos gave the Athenians was a fully developed stoa, with rooms added behind the double colonnade, and then the whole thing repeated on a second story. The rooms served as shops, rented out by the state, making the stoa the commercial center of the city for over 400 years. With 42 shops on two levels under a single roof, the building may well lay claim to being the world’s first mall. Not much has changed since antiquity except the technology.
A scene from the first excavations conducted by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in the Athenian Agora, in the early 1930s.
UNCOVER THE PAST!
Excavations of the Athenian Agora by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens have been ongoing for 85 years. All the work, including the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos, the restoration of the nearby Church of the Holy Apostles, as well as the landscaping of the archaeological park, has been done with private American money, a reliable indicator of how much Americans admire and cherish the Greek roots of western society, politics and art.
If you would like to participate in the ongoing work of recovery of all periods of Athens’ past, please contact the ASCSA at 6-8 Charlton St., Princeton, N.J. 08540 or go to: www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/giving
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
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Monographs
Excavations in the civic and cultural center of classical Athens began in 1931 and have continued almost without interruption to the present day. The first Athenian Agora volumes presenting the results of excavations appeared in 1953 and, as scholars complete their research, further titles continue to be published. Each volume covers a particular chronological period, set of buildings, or class of material culture. The series includes studies of lamps, sculpture, coins, inscriptions, and pottery. Because most of these ancient finds can be dated stratigraphically, these typological catalogues are invaluable reference works for archaeologists around the Mediterranean.
All monographs are published by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. You can order monographs online through Oxbow Books.
JOHN CAMP is Stavros Niarchos Foundation Professor of Classics at Randolph-Macon College, Virginia, Director of the Athenian Agora Excavations and author of many books on ancient Greece. His contribution to shedding light on Greece’s distinguished past spans nearly five decades.
Portrait Sculpture
Author: Harrison, E. B.
Publication Date: 1953
ISBN: 978-0-87661-201-9
Volume: 1
Presented in catalogue form are 64 portrait heads, headless torsos, and fragments (of both categories) ranging in date from the first half of the 1st century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. The catalogue is preceded by an introduction dealing with “finding-places,” “material,” “forms of portraits,” and “subjects.” Special emphasis is placed on stylistic criteria for dating each work, and the more interesting examples are discussed in some detail. There are not many great works of art illustrated, but many interesting types. As the author says in her introduction, “the Agora portraits interest us, not because they are unique, but because they are representative.”
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Coins: From the Roman through the Venetian Period
Author: Thompson, M.
Publication Date: 1954
ISBN: 978-0-87661-202-6
Volume: 2
Of the 55,492 coins that were recovered from the Athenian Agora during excavations from 1931 to 1949, this catalogue presents 37,000. These range in date from the last century of the Roman Republic to the declining years of the Republic of Venice. As the short historical survey that introduces the book indicates, this volume is intended to be a tabulation rather than study. It was written to provide prompt publication of the material excavated, and the catalogue is clear, fully documented, and easy to refer to.
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Literary and Epigraphical Testimonia
Author: Wycherley, R. E.
Publication Date: 1957
ISBN: 978-0-87661-203-3
Volume: 3
Here are presented all the ancient written references, both literary and epigraphical, to the Agora (including its environs) and its monuments. The introduction summarizes chronologically the authors cited, evaluating the contributions of each. The texts are given in the original Greek or Latin, followed by a translation and a commentary. They are grouped in parts: the Stoas, Shrines, Public Buildings and Offices, Market, Honorary Statues, Miscellaneous including Boundaries, Trees, Kerameikos, Panathenaic Street, Old Agora. Within each part the monuments are arranged alphabetically and under each monument the texts are listed alphabetically by author with inscriptions at the end. Many texts not given numbers in this order are included in the archaeological and topographical commentaries. Each section on a monument opens with a brief synopsis of the evidence contained in the texts which follow. The index of authors gives dates and editions as well as passages and inscriptions cited, and is followed by an index of subjects. The plates show plans of the Agora and its environs and of the route of Pausanias.
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Greek Lamps and Their Survivals
Author: Howland, R. H.
Publication Date: 1973
ISBN: 978-0-87661-204-0
Volume: 4
The author has used the trustworthy chronological data supplied by the scientific excavation of “closed deposits” at the Athenian Agora to build a continuous series of lamp types from the 7th century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. Many photographs and profiles of sections permit ready identification, and a handy graphical chart of lamp types facilitates quick checking of the chronological range of each.
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Pottery of the Roman Period: Chronology
Author: Robinson, H. S.
Publication Date: 1959
ISBN: 978-0-87661-205-7
Volume: 5
A group of closed deposits, ranging in date from the 1st century B.C. to the early 7th century A.D., provide evidence for the relative and absolute chronology of pottery used during many centuries of Roman domination—from the sack of Athens by Sulla in 86 B.C. to the Byzantine period. A descriptive catalogue divides the pottery into eight groups, arranged into chronologically differentiated layers. Prefacing the catalogue of each group, a brief general description gives the location, chronological limitations, basis for dating, etc., and then the individual items are described in considerable detail.
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Terracottas and Plastic Lamps of the Roman Period
Author: Grandjouan, C.
Publication Date: 1971
ISBN: 978-0-87661-206-4
Volume: 6
The volume contains a short introduction, a classification by types, a critical catalogue, a register of the dated contexts, concordances and indexes, and an excursus by T. B. L. Webster on the theatrical figurines. Nearly half of the 1,100 items are illustrated with photographs. The subjects of the (mostly fragmentary) figurines are revealing. To the Greek deities of earlier times are added Oriental figures like Serapis, Isis, Harpokrates, Attis, as well as Egyptian priests and Asiatic dancers. The molded “plastic” lamps that are included in this volume were probably made in the same workshops as the figurines.
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Lamps of the Roman Period, First to Seventh Century after Christ
Author: Perlzweig, J.
Publication Date: 1961
ISBN: 978-0-87661-207-1
Volume: 7
Nearly 3,000 specimens of lamps of “Roman” character are catalogued in this volume that covers the period from the 1st century B.C. to the 8th century A.D. The lamps are not easy to classify because the appearance of the clay used is not an infallible guide to the place of manufacture and the molds used to create the shapes were used widely around the Mediterranean. Terracotta lamps were probably made for local consumption in most cities of Greece; only a few centers, notably Athens and Corinth, developed an export trade capable of competing with local manufacturers. Since lamps from Athens do appear at other sites, the presentation of a well-dated sample of these finds provides useful reference material for scholars working at other sites.
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Late Geometric and Protoattic Pottery, Mid 8th to Late 7th Century B.C.
Author: Brann, E. T. H.
Publication Date: 1961
ISBN: 978-0-87661-208-8
Volume: 8
This volume reports on Athenian pottery found in the Athenian Agora up to 1960 that can dated from about the middle of the 8th century, when “the appearance of a painter of sufficient personal distinction to enliven the whole craft” marks a real break from the earlier Geometric style, through the third quarter of the 7th century when Protoattic gives way to black-figure and black wares. A sampling of contemporary imported ware is included. The material is treated first by shape and then, more extensively, by painting styles. Some 650 characteristic pieces are selected for cataloguing. The introduction discusses the development of the various shapes and styles, characterizing the special techniques and innovations of the period. The topographical features of the Agora that are indicated by the places of discovery of deposits of late Geometric and Protoattic pottery are summarized under wells, houses, workshops, sanctuaries, cemeteries, and roads.
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The Islamic Coins
Author: Miles, G. C.
Publication Date: 1962
ISBN: 978-0-87661-209-5
Volume: 9
All but 9 of the 6,449 Islamic coins found at Athenian Agora up to the date when this book was written belong to the Ottoman period. The earliest datable Ottoman coin is from the reign of Mehmed I (1413-21). Most of the coins come from overseas mints such as those of Istanbul, Cairo, Macedonia, Serbia, and Bosnia. Although the name of Athens cannot be read on any coin, the author thinks that many of the crude coppers of the 15th to 16th centuries A.D. were locally struck.
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Weights, Measures and Tokens
Authors: Lang, M., Crosby, M.
Publication Date: 1964
ISBN: 978-0-87661-210-1
Volume: 10
The first part of this book deals with weights (14 bronze, 109-111 lead, 28 stone) and measures (75 dry, 28-31 liquid). Although humble objects, the detailed study of these everyday items provides archaeological evidence for substantial changes in weight standards at different times in Athenian history. This reinforces literary evidence for a highly centralized bureaucracy controlling trade and commerce. In the second part of the book, Crosby catalogues and discusses some 900 lead and 46 clay tokens uncovered during the Agora excavations. The bulk of the lead material dates from the Roman period, while all the clay pieces belong to the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries B.C. These tokens served diverse functions. Some were used as admission tickets for festivals and theater performances while others can be related to attendance at lawcourts or receipt of tax payments.
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Archaic and Archaistic Sculpture
Author: Harrison, E. B.
Publication Date: 1965
ISBN: 978-0-87661-211-7
Volume: 11
Over 170 catalogued pieces of sculpture from the Athenian Agora are divided into four sections: the genuinely Archaic in date and form, the “archaistic” imitating Archaic originals (late 5th century to early 4th century B.C.), and two restricted groups of sculpture common in Athens. The latter are the Hekataia (a triple Hekate figure) and the herms. The chronological range is thus from the earliest Archaic kouros (ca. 600 B.C.) through the herms and Hekataia of the Roman period. Among other questions, the author explores the nature of the archaizing movement and the different types of herms and how they were used in the Agora.
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Black and Plain Pottery of the 6th, 5th and 4th Centuries B.C.
Authors: Sparkes, B. A., Tallcott, L.
Publication Date: 1970
ISBN: 978-0-87661-212-5
Volume: 12
This massive (two-part) volume focuses on pottery produced between 600 and 300 B.C. with Sparkes discussing the black glaze and Talcott the domestic (household and kitchen) wares of the period. Over 2,040 pieces of black-glaze pottery are catalogued and described, with many drawings and photographs.
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The Neolithic and Bronze Ages
Author: Immerwahr, S. A.
Publication Date: 1971
ISBN: 978-0-87661-213-2
Volume: 13
The finds in the Athenian Agora from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages have added important chronological context to the earliest eras of Athenian history. The bulk of the items are pottery, but stone, bone, and metal objects also occur. Selected material from the Neolithic and from the Early and Middle Helladic periods is catalogued by fabric and then shape and forms the basis of detailed discussions of the wares (by technique, shapes, and decoration), the stone and bone objects, and their relative and absolute chronology. The major part of the volume is devoted to the Mycenaean period, the bulk of it to the cemetery of forty-odd tombs and graves with detailed discussions of architectural forms; of funeral rites; of offerings of pottery, bronze, ivory, and jewelry; and of chronology. Pottery from wells, roads, and other deposits as well as individual vases without significant context, augment the pottery from tombs as the basis of a detailed analysis of Mycenaean pottery. A chapter on historical conclusions deals with all areas of Mycenaean Athens.
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The Agora of Athens. The History, Shape and Uses of an Ancient City Center
Authors: Thompson, H. A., Wycherley, R. E.
Publication Date: 1972
ISBN: 978-0-87661-214-9
Volume: 14
The subtitle, The History, Shape and Uses of an Ancient City Center, suggests the general character of this volume, which provides an overview of the area that served as the civic center of Athens from about 600 B.C. to A.D. 267. After a general resumé of the historical development of the Agora, the monuments are treated in detail, grouped by their use and purpose. Each monument is discussed in the light of both the literary and the archaeological evidence for its identification and its restoration. In the light of the topographical conclusions the route of Pausanias is traced. A chapter “After the Heruli” follows the fortunes of the area from A.D. 267 till the 19th century; the last century is treated in the detailed report of “The Excavations” up to 1971. This is a definitive survey of the historical and topographical results of 40 years of American excavations.
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Inscriptions: The Athenian Councillors
Authors: Merrit, B. D., Traill, J.
Publication Date: 1974
ISBN: 978-0-87661-215-6
Volume: 15
This book presents 494 dedications made by, and honoring, members of the Athenian administrative assembly (prytaneis) between 408/7 B.C. and A.D. 231/2. The inscriptions are important because they enable scholars to reconstruct a more precise chronological framework for Hellenistic and later Athenian history while also increasing understanding of the political organization of Attica. With thousands of names from 700 years of administration listed, the dedications also provide a rich source for prosopographers.
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Inscriptions: The Decrees
Author: Woodhead, A. G.
Publication Date: 1997
ISBN: 978-0-87661-216-3
Volume: 16
Edited texts, with extensive commentary, of some 344 fragments of Attic decrees dating from the mid-5th century B.C. to A.D. 203, found in excavations of the Athenian Agora before 1967, with brief notes on additional material found up to 1975. Well-documented discussions of individual archon years are supplied at the appropriate points in the chronological arrangement. In a field known for controversy, the author reviews the principal readings, restorations, and interpretations, achieving a balance between extreme positions.
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Inscriptions: The Funerary Monuments
Author: Bradeen, D. W.
Publication Date: 1972
ISBN: 978-0-87661-217-0
Volume: 17
This volume presents the funerary inscriptions found in the Athenian Agora between 1931 and 1968. In addition, all Agora fragments of the public casualty lists known in 1971 have been included, together with fragments associated with them but found elsewhere, although the latter are not discussed in full. Of the 1,099 inscriptions catalogued here, 238 are published for the first time. With the exception of 6 (previously published), all contain a sure name, ethnic, or demotic. In accordance with the established policy of the Excavations of the Athenian Agora, a photograph is included of every stone for which none has appeared previously. The catalogue is arranged alphabetically by demotics and ethnics; the indexes include names, tribes, geographical names, significant Greek words, and Latin words. The author’s unparalleled familiarity with Attic funerary scripts enabled him to offer valuable chronological suggestions for otherwise undatable private monuments and his historical understanding gave new meaning to the public funerary monuments.
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Inscriptions: The Dedicatory Monuments
Author: Geagan, D.
Publication Date: 2009
ISBN: 978-0-87661-218-7
Volume: 18
This is the last of five volumes presenting inscriptions discovered in the Athenian Agora between 1931 and 1967. Published here are inscriptions on monuments commemorating events or victories, on statues or other representations erected to honor individuals and deities, and on votive offerings to divinities. Most are dated to between the 4th century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D., but a few survive from the Archaic and Late Roman periods. A final section contains monuments that are potentially, but not certainly, dedicatory in character, and a small number of grave markers omitted from Agora XVII. Each of the 773 catalogue entries includes a description of the object inscribed, bibliography, a transcription of the Greek text, and commentary. There are photographs of each piece of which no adequate illustration has yet been published, including newly joined fragments. The volume concludes with concordances, bibliography, and an index of persons named in the inscriptions.
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Inscriptions: Horoi, Poletai Records, and Leases of Public Lands
Authors: Lalonde, G.V., Langdon, M. K., Walbank, M. B.
Publication Date: 1991
ISBN: 978-0-87661-219-4
Volume: 19
The three types of inscription from the Athenian Agora presented in this volume are all concerned with important civic matters. Part I, by Gerald V. Lalonde, includes all the horoi found in the excavations; most of them had been brought into the area for reuse at a later period. An introductory essay discusses the various purposes the horoi served, whether as markers of actual boundaries or private records of security for debt. The various types are illustrated in photographs. In Part II Merle K. Langdon publishes all the known records of the Athenian poletai, a board of magistrates charged with letting contracts for public works, leasing the state-owned silver mines and the privilege of collecting taxes, and leasing or selling confiscated property. The catalogue is preceded by an account of the nature of these transactions and the history of the poletai. Part III, by Michael B. Walbank, presents the records of leases for public and sacred lands, which once stood in the Agora; the documents are now in both the Agora and the Epigraphical Museums in Athens. The discussion considers the history and the terms of the leases. The three sections are followed by combined concordances and indices, with photographs of all stones not previously published.
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The Church of the Holy Apostles
Author: Frantz, A.
Publication Date: 1971
ISBN: 978-0-87661-220-0
Volume: 20
The Church of the Holy Apostles stands at an important crossroads in the southeast corner of the area of the ancient Agora. The earliest church on the site, built over a wall of the 5th-century B.C. Mint and the foundations of the Roman Nymphaeum, is here dated to the last quarter of the 10th century on the basis of its plan and details. The original plan was revealed as a tetraconch cross-in-square with dome on pendentives carried on arches supported by four freestanding columns, the west of the four apses penetrating into the narthex. Fifteen tombs of this first period were excavated under the floor of the church proper and the narthex. In a second period, probably in the late 17th or early 18th century, repairs after damage from the 1687 fighting made changes in the narthex and dome and the interior was covered with paintings. War in 1826 again caused damage which was repaired in Period III with further changes and additions. Finally in 1876-1882 (Period IV) the west end was again rebuilt and the last vestiges of the west apse removed. The architectural type is studied in relation to other churches in Greece, and the restoration is described. The plates give the author’s photos of the structure before, during, and after restoration and drawings of elevations, sections, and plans.
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Graffiti and Dipinti
Author: Lang, M.
Publication Date: 1976
ISBN: 978-0-87661-221-7
Volume: 21
Over 3,000 informal inscriptions scratched or painted on pottery, lamps, or other clay fragments have been found in the excavations of the Athenian Agora. In this volume, 859 of these graffiti and dipinti (representing those with sufficient content to be meaningful) are presented in catalogue and drawings. The texts consist of messages and lists, love names and curses, rough calculations, dedications, commercial and tax notations—in short, all manner of fascinating, all-too-human trivia. An introduction to each category defines the type, indicates special characteristics and suggests parallels, purpose, etc. Each example is illustrated in a line drawing with the exception of the tax notations (dipinti); in this case photographs seemed preferable owing to the fugitive medium and the run-on cursive forms. This skillful presentation of an important body of material contributes significantly to the study of informal Greek, especially in regard to letter forms and spelling, as well as to an understanding of the varying commercial practices in ancient Athens.
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Hellenistic Pottery: Athenian and Imported Mouldmade Bowls
Author: Rotroff, S
Publication Date: 1982
ISBN: 978-0-87661-222-4
Volume: 22
This volume is the first of two to present the Hellenistic fine ware from the excavations in the Athenian Agora. Its scope is restricted to the moldmade hemispherical bowls manufactured from the late 3rd century to the early 1st century B.C. in Athens. The material studied, consisting of some 1,400 fragments of which about 800 were inventoried by the excavators, was unearthed between 1931 and 1973. Of the inventoried pieces, 364 fragments of bowls and molds are catalogued and discussed here, with 40 additional imported pieces, 6 related moldmade examples of other shapes, and 5 pieces used in the manufacturing process. The author first discusses the origins and dating of the bowls and then takes up the various types, in order of appearance on the historical scene: pine-cone, imbricate, floral, and figured bowls and their workshops and chronology, long-petal bowls, and other special types such as concentric-semicircle and daisy bowls. The discussion is followed by a detailed catalogue including references to comparanda.
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Attic Black-Figured Pottery
Authors: Moore, M. B., Philippides, M. Z. P.
Publication Date: 1986
ISBN: 978-0-87661-223-1
Volume: 23
This volume is the first of the Athenian Agora reports to deal specifically with figured wares; it is concerned with the black-figured pottery found in the excavations in the Athenian Agora between 1931 and 1967, most of it in dumped fill especially in wells and cisterns. These deposits have been published separately in previous reports; by presenting them as a body, the authors are able to show how it complements and supplements the existing chronological and stylistic framework of shapes and artists. All the important pieces are shown in photographs, as well as all complete vases and those with particular problems. Profile drawings and reconstructions of the composition are supplied in a few special cases. Summary descriptions of references and a site plan are given for the deposits, which are also identified in the concordance of catalogue and inventory numbers. There are indexes of potters, painters, groups, and classes; subjects; shape and ornament; collections and provenances; and a general index.
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Late Antiquity, A.D. 267-700
Author: Frantz, A.
Publication Date: 1988
ISBN: 978-0-87661-224-8
Volume: 24
This book collects for the first time the archaeological and historical evidence for the area of the Athenian Agora in late antiquity, a period which spans the last flourishing of the great philosophical schools, the defeat of classical paganism by Christianity, and the collapse of the late Roman Empire. Although the primary focus of this volume is the material uncovered by the Agora excavations, the study also takes into account past and current discoveries elsewhere in the city. The author draws on archaeological, epigraphical, and literary evidence to present a comprehensive account of the history and topography of the city in the years before A.D. 700. The course of Athenian construction and destruction is traced from the mid-3rd century, through the Herulian invasion, to the period of recovery in the 3rd and 4th centuries (ending with the invasion of the Visigoth, Alaric, in A.D. 396). The 5th century is described, which saw the closing of the schools of philosophy by Justinian and the first Christian churches, and the gradual decline of the city until the Slavic invasion of the 580s, when Athens began an accelerated slide into oblivion. Special attention is paid to questions surrounding the history of the philosophical and rhetorical schools, the establishment of Christianity, and the removal of works of art from Athens to Constantinople.
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Ostraka
Author: Lang, L.
Publication Date: 1990
ISBN: 978-0-87661-225-5
Volume: 25
The scraps of pottery on which were written the names of candidates for ostracism are one of the most intriguing pieces of evidence for ancient democracy found in the Athenian Agora. This book is a complete catalogue and discussion of these sherds. Chapter One discusses the history of ostracism in Athens with brief remarks about the “candidates.” Chapter Two concentrates on the physical evidence of the ostraka, their identification, appearance, and content. Chapter Three presents the groups in which most of them were found; their distribution is indicated on a plan of the excavation area. Chapter Four is the catalogue of 1,145 ostraka, arranged by candidates. To these pieces are appended the 191 ostraka, almost all nominating Themistokles, found by Oscar Broneer in a well on the North Slope of the Acropolis. A large number of the Agora ostraka are illustrated with line drawings, a representative selection with photographs.
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The Greek Coins
Authors: Kroll, J. H., Walker, A. S.
Publication Date: 1993
ISBN: 978-0-87661-226-2
Volume: 26
This volume catalogues over 16,577 identifiable Greek coins produced by the excavations of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens between 1931 and 1990. The majority of the coins found and catalogued are Athenian bronze, from the 4th century B.C. through the 3rd century A.D. Included as well are the Athenian silver and the hundreds of non-Athenian gold, silver, and bronze coins that made their way into the Agora in antiquity Considerable attention is paid to the archaeological context of the coins and to presenting a pictorial record of the Greek coinage from the Agora, with more than 1,035 coins illustrated. Substantial introductory discussions place all the coins in clear historical and numismatic contexts and give a sense of the range of international commercial activity in the ancient city. This comprehensive reference work is indispensable for students and scholars of Greek coinage and history. Presenting a reliable chronology of Athens’ bronze coinage for the first time, it will be the standard reference for this important coinage in particular for years to come.
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The East Side of the Agora: The Remains beneath the Stoa of Attalos
Author: Townsend, R. F.
Publication Date: 1995
ISBN: 978-0-87661-227-9
Volume: 27
The Stoa of Attalos now covers the remains several centuries of previous occupation. Mycenaean and Protogeometric burials represent the early use of the area. By the Late Geometric period, the presence of a few wells indicates a shift to domestic occupation; others containing 6th-century material suggest the presence of workshops and commercial activity as well as houses. The earliest physical remains are those of an Archaic altar; some rubble structures may have been hastily built by refugees during the Peloponnesian War. At the end of the 5th century, a group of public buildings was constructed, perhaps to house some of the lawcourts. About 300 B.C., these were replaced by an imposing structure, the Square Peristyle, which could have housed four lawcourts simultaneously, each with a jury of 500. Still unfinished when it was dismantled in the first quarter of the second century B.C., its materials were carefully reused in other projects, especially in South Stoa II.
The evidence for these centuries is now limited to the meticulous records of the excavators and the finds now stored in the Stoa of Attalos, where some few remains still in situ are visible in the basement. The author’s success in making a coherent and orderly presentation rests on the care and diligence of the excavators as well as his own painstaking search through the records. The physical reconstruction is accompanied by a catalogue of archtitectural blocks; the discussion of the chronology is supported by the stratigraphic evidence and a catalogue of pottery.
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The Lawcourts at Athens: Sites, Buildings, Equipment, Procedure, and Testimonia
Authors: Alan L. Boegehold, John McK. Camp, II, Margaret Crosby, Mabel Lang, David R. Jordan, Rhys F. Townsend
Publication Date: 1995
ISBN: 978-0-87661-228-6
Volume: 28
A comprehensive, three-part study of the sites and procedures of Athenian lawcourts in the 5th, 4th, and 3rd centuries B.C. Part I discusses various courts, their names and possible sites, and reconstructs their history and daily workings, synthesizing literary, documentary, and physical evidence. Part II discusses the buildings which could have served as courts and the objects found in them. Such court paraphernalia included ballots, receptacles for documents, water clocks (used to time speeches), allotments machines and their accessories (for assigning jurors to the courts), seating tokens, and a curse tablet. Part III collects 355 testimonia on Athenian lawcourts, with Greek text, translation, and commentary.
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Hellenistic Pottery: Athenian and Imported Wheelmade Table Ware and Related Material
Author: Rotroff, S.
Publication Date: 1997
ISBN: 978-0-87661-229-3
Volume: 29
The second of two volumes on the Hellenistic fine ware unearthed in excavations in the Athenian Agora, this book presents the Hellenistic wheelmade table ware and votive vessels found between 1931 and 1982, some 1,500 Attic and 300 imported pieces. An introductory section includes chapters devoted to fixed points in the chronology of the pottery, to a general discussion of the decoration of Hellenistic pots, both stamped and painted, or “West Slope,” and to the question of workshops. The author dedicates much of the text to a typology of Attic Hellenistic fine ware, carefully examining the origins, development, chronology, forms, and decoration of each shape. The ordering of the material by function rather than by the form of vessels provides insight into life in Hellenistic Athens. Especially important is the development of a chronological framework that builds upon and refines the author’s earlier work in this area.
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Attic Red-Figured and White-Ground Pottery
Author: Moore, M. B.
Publication Date: 1997
ISBN: 978-0-87661-230-9
Volume: 30
This volume presents the inventoried red-figure and white-ground pottery found in the Agora Excavations between 1931 and 1967. Although many of these vases have already been published in various reports and special studies, this is the first time that all have appeared together, and this study gives a full accounting of them. Because almost all the shapes known in Attic red figure have been found in the Agora, these pieces provide a unique opportunity for study. The two introductory sections serve as a useful overview for the entire state of knowledge of Attic red-figure painting. The first gives a brief description of each vase shape and its development, and then shows how the Agora pieces fit into this sequence; the second follows this same format for groups of painters. In the catalogue, measurements and descriptions are given for 1,684 pieces, with relevant comparanda and up-to-date references. Inscriptions, graffiti, and dipinti are included, as well as reconstruction drawings of some of the more important or unusual scenes. The volume concludes with deposit summaries, concordance, and six indexes.
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The City Eleusinion
Author: Miles, M.
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 978-0-87661-231-6
Volume: 31
An archaeological study of the City Eleusinion in Athens, the sanctuary of Eleusinian Demeter and the city terminus for the annual Eleusinian Mysteries. The book presents the stratigraphical evidence from excavations of a part of the sanctuary (conducted in the 1930s and 1959-1960), the remains of the Temple of Triptolemos, a Hellenistic stoa, and a propylon, and contains extensive descriptions of the context pottery, a discussion of the ritual vessel plemochoe, and catalogues of inscriptions, sculpture, and architectural pieces from the sanctuary. There is a survey of the topography of the sanctuary and its environs on the North Slope of the Acropolis, and a discussion of its relationship to Eleusis and its position as a landmark within the city of Athens. Since a significant portion of the sanctuary still lies unexcavated under the modern city, the book includes a detailed assessment of the only evidence known so far for the various phases of use of the sanctuary, from the earliest evidence of the 7th century B.C. to the late antique period.
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Roman Pottery: Fine-Ware Imports
Author: Hayes, J.
Publication Date: 2008
ISBN: 978-0-87661-232-3
Volume: 32
Examples of Roman period red-gloss and red-slip pottery generally termed terra sigillata found during excavations in the Athenian Agora form the focus of this volume. These fine wares, like the other table wares of the first seven centuries A.D. discussed here, were all imported—a very different situation to earlier periods where Athens was known as a great ceramic-making center, and perhaps the result of mass destruction of potters’ workshops during the Sullan sack of 86 B.C. While the image of a demolished pottery industry is tragic, the consequent conglomeration of finewares from many parts of the Roman empire in one city makes the Athenian Agora a tremendous source of comparanda for archaeologists working all round the Mediterranean. Written by the world’s leading expert on Roman pottery, this huge catalogue illustrating and identifying multiple shapes and types of decoration will therefore be an essential reference book.
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Hellenistic Pottery: The Plain Wares
Author: Rotroff, S.
Publication Date: 2008
ISBN: 978-0-87661-233-0
Volume: 33
This manuscript represents the third and final volume in the publication of the Hellenistic pottery unearthed by the American excavations in the Athenian Agora. The first installment (Agora XXII) was devoted to the moldmade bowls and the second (Agora XXIX) to the remainder of the fine ware. The third presents the plain wares, including household pottery, oil containers, and cooking pottery. In all, about 1,400 Hellenistic vessels in these categories have been entered into the excavation record, which are represented here in a catalogue of 847 objects. The study constructs a typology, based on both form and fabric, and a chronology for these ceramics, using the fact that many of the pieces were found in “closed contexts” like wells. Finally, the author discusses the possible functions of the ceramic shapes found, and uses them to reconstruct some of the domestic and industrial activities of Hellenistic Athenians. While it documents the pottery assemblage of one site, this book will be an essential reference tool for archaeologists around the Mediterranean.
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Vessel Glass
Authors: Weinberg, G., Stern, M. E.
Publication Date: 2008
ISBN: 978-0-87661-234-7
Volume: 34
Greek and Roman glass from vessels of all sizes and shapes is discussed in this volume which presents 402 fragments of glass vessels excavated in the Athenian Agora. Only 36 pieces date to the Classical and Hellenistic periods, when the Agora was at the height of its importance, and just 15 are assigned to the 9th to 19th centuries. The remaining 350 are subdivided into four periods covering the Roman and Late Antique history of Athens: 86 B.C.-ca . A.D. 100, A.D. 100-267, A.D. 267-395, and A.D. 395-ca. 700. The fragments all have a findspot which allows the author to make some comments about the possible uses of the original vessels. The volume is divided into the following sections: history of the project, historical overview, important contexts, discussion of the catalogue by period and by shape, catalogue, deposit summaries, concordance. Most catalogues of ancient glass present pieces out of context, where function and date can only be guessed at. This volume, by publishing the main types of glass from a single site, provides richer contextual information and will thus be an essential reference work for archaeologists and specialists in ancient art.
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Hesperia Supplements
The Hesperia Supplement series presents book-length studies in the fields of Greek archaeology, art, language, and history. Originally designed to accommodate extended essays too long for inclusion in the journal Hesperia, the series was started in 1937. Since that date the Supplements have established a strong identity of their own, and are now recognized as one of the most prestigious publication venues in Greek studies. They range in format from single author monographs, through excavation reports, to major edited collections on topics of interest to researchers in classics, archaeology, art history, and Hellenic studies. Hesperia Supplements appear irregularly, but there are usually one to two published each year. Each Supplement is peer-reviewed, edited, and produced to the highest standards.
Hesperia and Hesperia Supplements are published by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. You can order current versions online throughOxbow Books.
Prytaneis: A Study of the Inscriptions Honoring the Athenian Councillors
Author: Dow, Sterling
Publication Date: 1937
Volume: 1
Prytaneis were the executive officers in charge of the Athenian council (or boule) after its reorganization by Cleisthenes in the 6th century B.C. This study presents all documents recovered from the Athenian Agora relating to the prytaneis, beginning in 327/6 B.C. and ending in the reign of Augustus. 121 of the inscriptions are previously unpublished. Each inscription is presented with detailed epigraphic apparatus, and most are illustrated.
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Late Geometric Graves and a Seventh-Century Well in the Agora
Author: Young, R. S.
Publication Date: 1939
Volume: 2
The entire contents of a small Geometric period (900-700 B.C.) cemetery of twenty graves, found just south of the Tholos in the Athenian Agora, are catalogued in this book. Three additional graves, a well, and selection of isolated finds provide the author with a mass of Geometric and proto-Attic pottery from which to develop important typological observations about Attic ceramics at this formative period.
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The Tholos of Athens and Its Predecessors
Author: Thompson, H. A.
Publication Date: 1940
Volume: 3
Famous classical buildings, such as the Parthenon, are preserved in such monumental isolation that it is hard to reconstruct the effect that they might have had on the ancient visitor. Their setting relative to other buildings, to statues, and surrounding vegetation is lost to us. This book presents a forensic examination of the archaeological remains on the Acropolis to reconstruct the immediate surroundings of one of the most striking monuments of antiquity.
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Observations on the Hephaisteion
Author: Dinsmoor, W. B.
Publication Date: 1941
Volume: 5
The well-preserved Temple of Hephaistos, standing on a low hill to the west of the Athenian Agora, was one of the only monuments visible when American excavations began on the site in 1931. Known throughout its early modern history as the “Theseum,” it is still the Agora’s most conspicuous landmark. This book presents an extremely detailed architectural study of the temple and a reconstruction of its history. Inaugurated in 449 B.C. (on October 17, claims the author), the temple was one of a group of building projects that celebrated the defeat of the Persians and the growth of Athenian power. In the 5th century A.D. the temple was converted to a Christian church and was used as such until the 19th century.
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Commemorative Studies in Honor of Theodore Leslie Shear
Publication Date: 1949
Volume: 8
Among many other accomplishments, T. Leslie Shear was Director of the American School excavations at the Athenian Agora when they began in 1931. He was also closely involved with excavations at ancient Corinth, excavated by the School since 1896. It is fitting, therefore, that the majority of the 45 contributors to this memorial volume focus on materials from these two excavations. The book includes a bibliography of Shear’s work.
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Horoi: Studies in Mortgage, Real Security, and Land Tenure in Ancient Athens
Author: Fine, J. V. A.
Publication Date: 1951
Volume: 9
Horos markers were used to indicate when a property was mortgaged and who the creditors were. This study publishes known examples from ancient Athens and explores how the mortgage system may have worked. The book contains eight chapters: Chapter I presents 35 new horos mortgage inscriptions. Chapter II contains references to, or transcriptions of, all other known horos mortgage stones. Chapter III is devoted to a discussion of the use and physical properties of stone horoi and to the possible use of wooden horoi. Chapters V to VII provide careful analyses of the various kinds of contracts drawn up by the Athenians when the security consisted of real property. Chapter VIII attempts to date the introduction of mortgage contracts at Athens and to explain the lateness of this date—the earliest horos example probably dates to after the Peloponnesian War.
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The Athenian Constitution after Sulla
Author: Geagan, D. J.
Publication Date: 1967
Volume: 12
This book aims to examine the text of every known Athenian inscription datable to the period after the new constitution of Sulla (ca. 68 B.C.) and to reconstruct information about the civic offices and institutions established in this period. The author therefore presents all the evidence he has found for the duties of major officials, councillors, and minor magistrates. He compares this information with the earlier picture painted by Aristotle in his study of the Constitution of the Athenians, and shows that many changes took place in the Roman period.
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Marcus Aurelius: Aspects of Civic and Cultural Policy in the East
Author: Oliver, J. H.
Publication Date: 1970
Volume: 13
An important inscription, found in the Roman market place in Athens, is here published for the first time. Although fragmentary, it preserves the text of a formal letter from Marcus Aurelius directed to the Athenians in the year A.D. 174/5. The Roman emperor’s decisions in cases concerning office holding, membership of the council, and the appointment of the Athenian members of the Panhellenion (the council of cities established by Hadrian) are recorded. Elicited by a complaint to the emperor from prominent citizens, the letter also sheds light on the brutal political quarrels that swirled around the Athenian administrator, Herodes Atticus, builder of some of Athens’s best-known monuments.
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The Political Organization of Attica
Author: Traill, J. H.
Publication Date: 1975
Volume: 14
Using inscriptions recording council membership recovered by excavations in the Athenian Agora, the author presents a detailed reconstruction of the political geography of Attica. The reforms of the 6th-century B.C. politician Cleisthenes organized Athenian citizens into ten tribes (phylai), divided into thirty “thirds” (trittyes) and 139 local units (demes). The author shows how this visionary arrangement was maintained almost unchanged until at least 200 B.C. and provided the basis for the whole representative system at the center of ancient democracy. Charts and tables document the evidence in great detail, but the whole arrangement is made easier to understand by the inclusion of a color map, the basis for almost all scholarship on Athenian politics since this book was first published.
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Kallias of Sphettos and the Revolt of Athens in 286 B.C.
Author: Shear, T. L. Jr.
Publication Date: 1978
Volume: 17
The long honorary decree for Kallias of Sphettos, found in the excavations of the Athenian Agora in 1971, is here published for the first time, illustrated with general and detailed photographs, with a translation and line-by-line commentary. The author has further explored the wealth of information to be gathered from the inscription, which adds greatly to our understanding of Athenian history between the battle of Ipsos in 301 and the battle of Kouroupedion in 286 B.C., the ensuing peace with Demetrios, and the acquisition of foreign aid for the nationalist regime. These discussions are followed by an appendix giving the Greek texts of the literary and epigraphic testimonia, and a chronological table, which provides a historical summary at a glance for this troubled period.
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Studies in Attic Epigraphy, History, and Topography Presented to Eugene Vanderpool
Publication Date: 1982
Volume: 19
Twenty-six papers on the epigraphy, history, and topography of ancient Greece presented to the famous scholar by his eminent students and friends. The contents are: A Lid with Dipinto (Alan L. Boegehold); Athenians, Macedonians, and the Origins of the Macedonian Royal House (Eugene N. Borza); Koroni and Keos (John L. Caskey); Epicurus in the Archives of Athens (Diskin Clay); The Nature of the Late Fifth Century Revision of the Athenian Law Code (Kevin Clinton); Theseus and the Unification of Attica (Steven Diamant); Onesippos’ Herm (Colin N. Edmonson); Gennadeion Notes v. the Journal of Thomas Whitcombe, Philhellene (C. W. J. Eliot); A Lekythos in Toronto and the Golden Youth of Athens (Henry R. Immerwahr); The Leasing of Land in Rhamnous (Michael H. Jameson); Writing and Spelling on Ostraka (Mabel L. Lang); Some Attic Walls (Merle K. Langdon); Dodwellopolis: Addendum to “Fortified Military Camps in Attica” (James R. McCredie); Athens and Hestiaia (Malcolm F. McGregor); Thucydides and the Decrees of Kallias (Benjamin D. Meritt); Arrian in Two Roles (James H. Oliver); The Dedication of Aristokrates (Antony E. Raubitschek); The Pnyx in Models (Homer A. Thompson); The Alleged Conservatism of Attic Epigraphical Documents: A Different View (Leslie Threatte); Agora I 7181 + IG II, 2, 944b (Stephen V. Tracy); An Interpretation of Six Rock-Cut Inscriptions in the Attic Demes of Lamptrai (John S. Traill); PARADEIGMA (John Travlos and E. L. Smithson); Regulations for an Athenian Festival (Michael B. Walbank); The Final Battle at Plataia (Paul W. Wallace); An Attic Farm near Laurion (Livingston Vance Watrous); Sepulturae Intra Urbem and the Pre-Persian Walls of Athens (F. E. Winter).
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Studies in Athenian Architecture, Sculpture, and Topography Presented to Homer A. Thompson
Publication Date: 1982
Volume: 20
Twenty-one papers on various aspects of Athenian art and society by the students and friends of Homer A. Thompson, a noted classical archaeologist and excavator of the Athenian Agora. The volume includes many papers on sculpture (including Nancy Bookidis on Attic terracotta sculpture and Brunhilde Ridgway on the features of kouroi and korai in Archaic Athens), some on architecture (including William B. Dinsmoor Jr. on the Pinakotheke), and a few on topography (including Sara Immerwahr on “the earliest known grave in Athens” and Evelyn Smithson on evidence for a prehistoric Klepsydra).
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Attic Grave Reliefs That Represent Women in the Dress of Isis
Author: Walters, E. J.
Publication Date: 1988
Volume: 22
The author investigates the appearance of a fashion in clothing, involving a knotted mantle worn across the chest, on many Attic stelae of the Roman period. She suggests that this style can be traced to Egyptian roots, and might have been particularly associated with a cult of Isis, popular among wealthy Athenians. The book presents a catalogue of the 106 known Isis reliefs from Attica and a review of all forms of evidence for the cult.
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Hellenistic Relief Molds from the Athenian Agora
Author: Grandjouan, C.
Publication Date: 1989
Volume: 23
Over 100 clay molds found between 1931 and 1977 in the fills within the three great Hellenistic stoas that once lined the Agora (the Middle Stoa, the Stoa of Attalos, and the South Stoa) are published in this book. While the repertory of images that could have been cast using them, comprising 25 subjects, is relatively conventional, the large size (up to 30 x 60 cm) makes their function a puzzle. The author concludes that they must have been for the casting of cheap funerary substitutes at a time when a decree of Demetrios of Phaleron prohibited the building of costly burial monuments in Athens. After the author’s death in 1982, this volume was edited by Eileen Markson and Susan I. Rotroff.
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Debris from a Public Dining Place in the Athenian Agora
Authors: Rotroff, S. I., Oakley, J. H.
Publication Date: 1992
Volume: 25
In 1972 a large deposit of pottery and other finds from the mid-5th century B.C. were found in a pit just west of the Royal Stoa in the Athenian Agora. It contained many fragments of figured pottery, more than half of which were large drinking vessels. 21 fragments were inscribed with a graffito known to be a mark of public ownership. The authors conclude that the pottery is refuse from one of the public dining facilities that served the magistrates of Classical Athens. The volume examines the archaeological context and chronology of the deposit and gives a detailed analysis of all the finds. A complete catalogue arranges the finds by type and in chronological order.
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The Athenian Grain-Tax Law of 374/3 B.C.
Author: Stroud, R. S.
Publication Date: 1998
Volume: 29
The first publication of a complex and well-preserved Athenian law of great interest to historians. Discovered in the Agora Excavations in 1986, this hitherto unknown law rivals in importance that of the law on silver coinage of 375/4 B.C., which was published by the author some twenty years ago. In addition to the complete text, translation, and notes on readings, the author, a superb epigrapher, provides commentary on the many parts of this document, which contributes significant new information on the history, law, economy, topography, and public finance of Athens in the Classical period. The first section of the volume includes an expert analysis of the layout of the inscription and useful notes, while the major portion of the text is devoted to detailed commentary on the law, its purpose, and implementation. The historical setting of the law is well-illuminated in the final section. The authors analyses of this important inscription provide a solid foundation for new avenues of research.
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Ceramicus Redivivus: The Early Iron Age Potters’ Field in the Area of the Classical Athenian Agora
Author: Papadopoulos, J. K.
Publication Date: 2003
Volume: 31
This volume presents selected material associated with potters' workshops and pottery production from some 14 Early Iron Age contexts northwest of the Athenian Acropolis that range in date from the Protogeometric through Archaic periods. Located in the area that was to become the Agora of Classical Athens, these deposits establish that the place was used for industrial activity until it was formally transformed into the civic and commercial center of the city in the early 5th century B.C. The Early Iron Age potters' debris published in this volume sheds light on many aspects of pottery production, in prehistory as well as in the Classical and later periods. The material includes test-pieces, wasters and other production discards. There is also a reassessment of the evidence associated with the kiln underlying the later Tholos.
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Fragmentary Inscriptions from the Athenian Agora
Author: Walbank, M. B.
Publication Date: 2008
Volume: 38
This volume publishes the editiones principes of the most fragmentary inscriptions found during excavations in the Athenian Agora between 1931 and 1967. These comprise parts of 100 decrees of the Athenian state and other political bodies. Each of the inscriptions is illustrated and described, with a transcription of the legible letters and commentary.
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Miscellaneous
The Athenian Agora:
Excavations in the Heart of Classical Athens
Author: Camp, J.
Publication Date: 1992
ISBN: 0500276838
The Agora was the great public square in ancient Athens. Drawing on the wealth of excavated evidence, and supplemented by literary and inscriptional references, this book tells the story of the Agora from Neolithic to medieval times.
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The Birth of Democracy
Authors: Buitron-Oliver, D., Camp, J.
Publication Date: 1993
ISBN: 0876619502
This is the catalogue of an exhibition held at the National Archives in Washington D.C. to celebrate the 2,500th anniversary of the beginnings of democracy in Athens, interpreted as the implementation of Cleisthenes' governmental reforms. This informative catalogue includes color illustrations of the objects displayed: sculptures, architectural models, and small objects from Athens and from museums in America and Europe. The objects are set in context with nine short essays.
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Hesperia Open Access
The ASCSA has made all Hesperia articles from 1932 to 2011 available as downloadable PDFs. This webpage is intended for the use of individuals who do not have access to JSTOR. Look for articles by using the search box below. Click on a column heading to sort the results by title, author, volume, issue, or keyword/abstract. Display 10, 25, 50, or 100 entries at a time, and navigate results at the bottom of the page. Click an article's “Download” link to read on-screen with PDF software (e.g., Adobe Reader), or save the file to a reading device. Online access is not required to read these articles once they have been downloaded, and there is no limit to the number of articles that readers can save for future use. The articles are free of digital rights management (DRM), but are protected under the Creative Commons BY-NC license that allows for downloading and sharing articles, as long as the ASCSA and Hesperia are credited as the source. The articles and works derived from them cannot be used for commercial purposes.
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for more information please visit the following web page
http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/publications/hesp-open-access
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WEB RING
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and for more information, please switch to the same webpage in English -
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