Literature Analysis

• Rhetorical Devices -- The use of language that creates a literary effect – enhance and support

Rhetorical Question food for thought; create satire/sarcasm; pose dilemma

Euphemism substituting a milder or less offensive sounding word(s)

Aphorism universal commends, sayings, proverbs – convey major point

Repetition also called refrain; repeated word, sentence or phrase

Restatement main point said in another way

Irony Either verbal or situational – good for revealing attitude

Allusion refers to something universally known

Paradox a statement that can be true and false at the same time

SYNTAX

Consider the following patterns and structures:

Does the sentence length fit the subject matter?

Why is the sentence length effective?

What variety of sentence lengths are present?

Sentence beginnings – Variety or Pattern?

Arrangement of ideas in sentences

Arrangement of ideas in paragraph – Pattern?

Construction of sentences to convey attitude

Declarative assertive – A statement

Imperative authoritative - Command

Interrogative asks a question

Simple Sentence one subject and one verb

Loose Sentence details after the subject and verb – happening now

Periodic Sentence details before the subject and verb – reflection on a past event

Juxtaposition normally unassociated ideas, words or phrases placed next together

Parallelism show equal ideas; for emphasis; for rhythm

Repetition words, sounds, and ideas used more than once – rhythm/emphasis

Rhetorical Question a question that expects no answer

Punctuation is included in syntax

Ellipses a trailing off; equally etc.; going off into a dreamlike state

Dash interruption of a thought; an interjection of a thought into another

Semicolon parallel ideas; equal ideas; a piling up of detail

Colon a list; a definition or explanation; a result

Italics for emphasis

Capitalization for emphasis

Exclamation Point for emphasis; for emotion

SHIFTS IN TONE Attitude change about topic/Attitude about topic is different than the attitude toward subject

Key Words (but, nevertheless, however, although)

Changes in the line length

Paragraph Divisions

Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons)

Sharp contrasts in diction

SYNTAX (SENTENCE STRUCTURE)

Describe the sentence structure by considering the following:

1. Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (shorter than 5 words in length), short (approximately 5 words in length), medium (approximately 18 words in length), or long and involved (30 or more words in length)? Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? What variety of lengths is present? Why is the sentence length effective?

2. Examine sentence beginnings. Is there a good variety or does a patterning emerge?

3. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose?

4. Examine the arrangement of ideas in a paragraph. Is there evidence of any pattern or structure?

5. Examine the sentence patterns. Some elements to consider are listed below:

a. A declarative (assertive) sentence makes a statement: e.g., The king is sick.

b. An imperative sentence gives a command: e.g., Stand up.

c. An interrogative sentence asks a question: e.g., Is the king sick?

d. An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation: e.g., The king is dead!

e. A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb: e.g., The singer bowed to her adoring audience.

f. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon: e.g., The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.

g. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses: e.g., You said that you would tell the truth.

h. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses: e.g., The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

i. A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences.

j. A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached: e.g., That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

k. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue or their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.

l. Natural order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate: e.g., Oranges grow in California.

m. Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so that the predicate comes before the subject: e.g., In California grow oranges. This is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reverse to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect.

n. Split order of a sentence divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle: e.g., In California oranges grow.

o. Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another creating an effect of surprise and wit: e.g., “The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/ Petals on a wet, black bough” (“In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound)

p. Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: e.g., He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.

q. Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and create emphasis: e.g., “…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth” (“Address at Gettysburg” by Abraham Lincoln)

r. A rhetorical question is a question that expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point that is generally stronger than a direct statement: e.g., If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?

DIDLS: The Key to TONE

Diction - the connotation of the word choice

What words does the author choose? Consider his/her word choice compared to another. Why did the author choose that particular word? What are the connotations of that word choice?

Images - vivid appeals to understanding through the senses - concrete language

What images does the author use? What does he/she focus on in a sensory (sight, touch, taste, smell, etc.) way? The kinds of images the author puts in or leaves out reflect his/her style? Are they vibrant? Prominent? Plain? NOTE: Images differ from detail in the degree to which they appeal to the senses.

Details - facts that are included or those that are omitted

What details are does the author choose to include? What do they imply? What does the author choose to exclude? What are the connotations of their choice of details? PLEASE NOTE: Details are facts or fact-lets. They differ from images in that they don't have a strong sensory appeal.

Language - the overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon

What is the overall impression of the language the author uses? Does it reflect education? A particular profession? Intelligence? Is it plain? Ornate? Simple? Clear? Figurative? Poetic? Make sure you don't skip this step.

Sentence Structure - how structure affects the reader's attitude

What are the sentences like? Are they simple with one or two clauses? Do they have multiple phrases? Are they choppy? Flowing? Sinuous like a snake? Is there antithesis, chiasmus, parallel construction? What emotional impression do they leave? If we are talking about poetry, what is the meter? Is there a rhyme scheme?

DICTION:

Laugh: guffaw, chuckle, titter, giggle, cackle, snicker, roar

Self-confident: proud, conceited, egotistical, stuck-up, haughty, smug, condescending

House: home, hut, shack, mansion, cabin, home, residence

Old: mature, experienced, antique, relic, senior, ancient

Fat: obese, plump, corpulent, portly, porky, burly, husky, full-figured

IMAGES:

The use of vivid descriptions or figures of speech that appeal to sensory experiences helps to create the author's tone.

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun. (restrained)

An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king. (somber, candid)

He clasps the crag with crooked hands. (dramatic)

Love sets you going like a fat gold watch. (fanciful)

Smiling, the boy fell dead. (shocking)

DETAILS:

Details are most commonly the facts given by the author or speaker as support for the attitude or tone.

The speaker's perspective shapes what details are given and which are not.

LANGUAGE:

Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone.

Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits of diction.

For example, an invitation to a wedding might use formal language, while a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.

• When I told Dad that I had goofed the exam, he blew his top. (slang)

• I had him on the ropes in the fourth and if one of my short rights had connected, he'd have gone down for the count. (jargon)

• A close examination and correlation of the most reliable current economic indexes justifies the conclusion that the next year will witness a continuation of the present, upward market trend. (turgid, pedantic)

SENTENCE STRUCTURE:

How a sentence is constructed affects what the audience understands.

Parallel syntax (similarly styled phrases and sentences) creates interconnected emotions, feelings and ideas.

Short sentences are punchy and intense. Long sentences are distancing, reflective and more abstract.

Loose sentences point at the end. Periodic sentences point at the beginning, followed by modifiers and phrases.

The inverted order of an interrogative sentence cues the reader to a question and creates tension between speaker and listener.

Short sentences are often emphatic, passionate or flippant, whereas longer sentences suggest greater thought.

Sentence structure affects tone.

SHIFT IN TONE:

Good authors are rarely monotone. A speaker's attitude can shift on a topic, or an author might have one attitude toward the audience and another toward the subject. The following are some clues to watch for shifts in tone:

• key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although)

• punctuation (dashes, periods, colons)

• paragraph divisions

• changes in sentence length

• sharp contrasts in diction

TONE

Tone is defined as the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject and the audience. Understanding tone in prose and poetry can be challenging because the reader doesn't have voice inflection to obscure or to carry meaning. Thus, an appreciation of word choice, details, imagery, and language all contribute to the understanding of tone. To misinterpret tone is to misinterpret meaning.

A list of tone words is one practical method of providing a basic "tone vocabulary." An enriched vocabulary enables students to use more specific and subtle descriptions of an attitude they discover in a text. Here is a short list of simple but helpful "tone words":