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Constant Change in Computing
Constant Change in Computing
Computing technology use changes continually.
Moral - the law of God.
Legal - the law of the land.
Ethical - the law of the group.
Morality is the notion of right and wrong in society. It is governed by what people feel is good or evil. This very often is tied historically to a country's religious heritage.
The legal framework of a country comprises of those things written down that say what you can and can't do and the penalty you must pay if you do things that are not allowed.
The ethical framework refers to groups of people, each group having their own principles and modes of behaviour. These are directly related to each particular group's activities. For example, doctors, teachers and MPS each have their own code of ethics.
TASK 1 - Give some examples of what is 'moral' and immoral'.
TASK 2 - Give some examples of ethical standards that guide teachers or doctors.
The Digital Divide
The Digital Divide
You can debate the subtleties of the meanings of these three words forever.
We will use three very simple definitions:
You can learn some basic facts and get a few ideas from these notes, IT Laws, long term trends (telecommuting, social media etc), but you need to read many articles about different applications and the way they have changed lives
Much of the knowledge required for answering questions on this section will come from wide background reading, IT News, blogs and newspapers (on-line or paper based).
Since the start of the course, there have been constant innovations in the use of IT and especially Web2.0 technologies.
It is this constant change that make Computing & IT such an interesting area to study and work in. However you need to constantly update your skills and knowledge.
Trends in computer use
Trends in computer use
Computers have had many effects on individuals in society. They have impacted on the way individuals work, socialise and run their lives. As a result of computers, an individual's values are now in constant flux.
The moral and ethical framework that guides an individual is constantly changing as is the economic and legal framework within which lives are led. Moral, legal and ethical
The digital divide is the term used to describe some groups of people having access to computers, training on computers and computer-based information while other groups have limited access or none at all.
Third world countries, already economically disadvantaged, are finding themselves at a further disadvantage because their citizens generally do not have the same opportunities as those in developed countries.
Their citizens generally may not have the money to buy expensive computers and there may not be the same opportunity of education that you and I take for granted. The priority may simply be to find enough food for that day!
People without IT Access are refered to as the Information Poor
The digital divide can also refer to different groups of citizens within a developed country such as the UK.
The cheapest place to buy consumer goods is online, people with internet access cannot access the cheapest deals.
Many services are now online, without IT access it may be difficult to contact Council and Govenment Services.
Most service companies reserve their best prices for online customers, so the Information poor could end up paying more for services such as; electricity, gas, banking etc
Who are the Information Poor?
Who are the Information Poor?
Unemployed people, for example, may not be able to afford to buy computers, pay a subscription for Internet access or have the skills or confidence to get themselves on computer-related training courses.
Another group of people who may find themselves disadvantaged are pensioners. Their opportunity to access modern technology may be limited by their income, their background and the perception that computers are for younger people.
There are many examples of organisations trying to reduce the effect of the digital divide.
Schemes exist to give people better opportunities of access.
Different groups such as pensioners are having training plans designed especially for them.
Subsidised access is in place in many libraries, for example.
TASK 3 - Clearly describe what is meant by the 'digital divide'.
TASK 4 - Use the links and find your own articles on the way that individuals and organisations are trying to reduce the effects of the digital divide. Describe fully two such schemes.
Question: What is the term for retired people who are computer literate and surf the web?
The law lags behind the advances of computers
The law lags behind the advances of computers
The pace of change in the new computer industries is incredible. Opportunities exist for criminals to carry out crimes such as fraud in new ways using new technology. In addition, however, activities that don't currently exist as a crime but should become possible. They are difficult to classify as a crime and it is difficult to prosecute somebody because the legislation isn't adequate.
The pace of change in the new computer industries is incredible. Opportunities exist for criminals to carry out crimes such as fraud in new ways using new technology. In addition, however, activities that don't currently exist as a crime but should become possible. They are difficult to classify as a crime and it is difficult to prosecute somebody because the legislation isn't adequate.
The classic example of this is hacking.
For a number of years, it was very difficult to prosecute anyone who hacked into somebody else's computer system. The existing laws were difficult to apply to unauthorised access of data. The result was that a new piece of legislation had to be passed in the shape of the Computer Misuse Act 1990.
Data Protection Act 1998
Data Protection Act 1998
It had to be produced because the existing Data Protection Act didn't fully protect individuals right to privacy when data was sent over the Internet. When change happens the legal system often catches up and offers protection a few years later! Until it does, opportunities exist for activities that are considered criminal but which rarely lead to prosecution.
The effects on a Communities
The effects on a Communities
Many village facilities have closed because they are uneconomical. These have included post offices, banks and village shops. This has had a big effect on people in villages. These facilities often provided a social life, a community spirit, a place to meet and jobs for the local community. Many people complained about the effects of closing facilities. Bus services were often poor and some groups of people felt isolated, especially if they didn't run a car. Some of the complaints, however, have been reduced as a result of the Internet.
Influence of the Internet
Influence of the Internet
This is because the Internet has started to change the way that people live their lives. Many people now have Internet bank accounts. They don't need a traditional bank anymore because they can apply online for a mortgage or loan, transfer money, view statements, deal with questions and problems, for example. Supermarkets are slowly expanding their home delivery services nationwide. It is now possible to shop online and have an order delivered to your house. People are increasingly using email to send letters. They are increasingly using the Internet to socialise, using chat rooms with voice and web cam facilities. The patterns of people's lives have changed because of new technology.
Software Piracy
Software Piracy
It is very easy to copy software, download music, download videos and access illegal material such as pornography from the Internet. Regardless of the latest safeguards in place, the nature of the Internet is such that the way around any copying problem can be found quickly.
The real question for the individual is, 'Should I, just because I can'?
Copying software from someone is theft. Downloading music and videos from the Internet is also theft unless, for example, it is freeware. Accessing pornography may well be possible but it may also be illegal. An individual also has quite a few moral and ethical questions to ask themselves before they walk along a particular path. They need to ask themselves what sort of person they are and how they want others to see them.
TASK 5 - Using an example, explain why the legal system doesn't always protect us from criminals using new technology.
TASK 6 - Suggest reasons why a pensioner in a village may not benefit from the introduction of the Internet.
TASK 7 - Define the terms 'freeware' and 'shareware'.
TASK 8 - Why is it so difficult for software houses to stop their products being stolen?
TASK 9 - Somebody who wouldn't dream of shoplifting is quite happy to steal computer games by copying their friend's CD and steal music by downloading it from websites. Why don't they see these actions as theft?
Changes in patterns of leisure
Children are playing a lot of computer games today.
Many of the games are violent.
Children are not playing nearly as much sport as they used to
They are not as healthy and fit as children of previous generations.
Childhood Obesity is rising in the developed world
These patterns of leisure worry some people
Young People may not be socialising and forming social skills in the same way as previous generations.
Does socialising online develop the same skills?
As ADSL use grows, it is now becoming feasible for individuals to download bandwidth-intensive applications such music and video.
This may be the beginning of the end for video shops and a more widespread change in the way we buy and listen to music and video.
Changes in patterns of working
People have more opportunity to work from home now. This is called Telecommuting
Computers and the internet enable people to work flexible hours.
Many computer-based jobs, for example, writing software, can be done from anywhere in the world. This gives an opportunity for employers to hire cheaper people with the right skills.
For example, India has a pool of very highly-educated programmers that can be employed at much cheaper rates than western programmers.
Many mundane and repetitive jobs have been replaced by computer-controlled machinery.
For example, some welding jobs in car factories can now be done with robots.
The quality of the work is better.
The robots can be run for 24 hours a day with only a limited amount of time down for maintenance.
They don't go on strike, tea breaks or need to be paid
(although the initial cost of the robots is considerable, the long term savings are immense).
Robots need specialist skills.
Someone has to design them, build them, maintain them, program and re-program them.
This has meant new opportunities for workers willing to be trained in newer technologies.
Email has replaced a lot of communication that was done on paper. Initially, people talked of a 'paperless society' but a healthy dose of reality has set in. Many communications, however, are now done electronically. Both internal and external communications are instant, relatively cost-free compared to the post and have reduced the amount of paper consumed, which is good for both the company and the environment.
With the advance of video conferencing, the reasons for people to be out of the office for days while they travel to meetings in distant parts has been reduced. This has meant that they can be doing more constructive things.
Changes in patterns of education
Changes in patterns of education
People can now do courses online. These might include multiple choice tests that get marked immediately or video tutorials. This may well help people who are trying to hold down one job but train for another or people who are house-bound for any reason.
Computer people are expected to constantly update their skills. Developing the necessary skills to help oneself and sort out one's own problems is extremely important in education now and the process starts early on in your school career.
These skills are really focused on during post-16 education because much of the support you will have been used to disappears at University. When you start work, you may be provided with opportunities for training but much of your free time may be taken up in you keeping yourself up-to-date!!
TASK 10 - Explain the terms 'ADSL' and 'bandwidth'.
TASK 11 - Picture yourself buying some music via the Internet as a download. Describe in detail all the steps involved.
TASK 12 - Summarise in your own words some of the changes to society brought about by computing technology. Your answers should focus on changes in leisure time, work patterns and education.
TASK 13 - Do some research. Suggest some changes to society not mentioned in this section.
The Computer Misuse Act 1990
The Computer Misuse Act 1990
This law came in to being specifically to deal with hackers, people who seek to gain unauthorised access to computer systems. In the early days of computing, hackers were seen as 'a little bit naughty'. It soon became apparent that they can cause untold damage to national security, can cause havoc with a company's legitimate operations and can steal a lot of money! Existing legislation was difficult to apply to hackers.
The result was the Computer Misuse Act 1990.The act does three things.
It makes it illegal to access data to which you have no right. For example, you are not allowed to try to guess or find out a friend's password and then gain access to their files! You can be fined and jailed for up to 6 months.
It makes a more serious offence of accessing data to which you have no right with the intention of carrying out other crimes. For example, if you hacked into a bank's system with the intention of stealing credit card numbers, then you would fall foul of this law. You can be fined and jailed for up to 5 years.
It makes it illegal to change any data. If you hack into an area to which you have no right and start deleting files or modifying data then you will be breaking this law. You can be fined and jailed for up to 5 years.
The Copyright and Patents Act 1988
The Copyright and Patents Act 1988
People who write, paint, compose music, design web pages or invent something, for example, have 'intellectual rights' over what they have done. They own the copyright. This means that somebody who wants to use what they have done must get permission first from the copyright owner. The copyright holder can refuse to give permission, give permission freely, give permission but attach some conditions of use or could charge for permission. These rights are enshrined in law in The Copyright and Patents Act 1988. For example, If you find a web site you like, you cannot make copies of the web site. You cannot burn copies of the web site on to CD without permission nor can you use images you found there without permission. Many web sites, photographs and images now incorporate software that 'stamps' the images with the copyright owner's details. If you do a computing project as part of your course, you cannot include work in your project that somebody else has done without properly giving credit to the author. If you do use somebody else's work without giving it due credit then this is known as plagiarism. It is both unethical and a breach of copyright. There are many web sites offering projects for sale for both school work and university work. Educational institutions and exam boards have become very wise to these sites and now regularly run software through submitted coursework to look for passages that have been stolen.
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 / Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 / Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
Computing technology and how it is used has thrown up many questions in relation to health and safety. There have been concerns regarding the radiation emitted by VDUs, the strain placed on eyes by looking for long periods at computer screens, the effects of repetitive movements on bones (Repetitive Strain Injury), the effects of sitting incorrectly at computers and using electrical equipment in busy areas. Organisations have a responsibility to ensure that the environment workers have to carry out their jobs in is a safe one with any risks minimised. Employees also have a duty to ensure that they work safely and in accordance with any training they have been given. Health and safety legislation makes clear the obligations of both employers and employees. These are discussed later in this chapter. Other legislation
There are other laws that have an impact on users of computers. These include the Human Rights Act 1998, the European Convention on Human Rights, the Freedom of Information Act 2000, the Anti-terrorism and the Crime and Security Act 2001.
TASK 14 - A company has just been set up to market educational books. It intends to keep details about potential customers in its computer database. State the practical steps that the organisation should take to comply with the Data Protection Act 1998. You should ensure you mention the Data Protection Commissioner and that you cover the 8 principles in the Act.
TASK 15 - State the European legislation that has similar aims to the DPA 1998.
TASK 16 - Suggest two problems with enforcing UK law on somebody in the USA.
TASK 17 - What is a 'hacker'?
TASK 18 - State the Act that targets specifically the activities of hackers and outline the offences contained in the Act.
TASK 19 - What does it mean if something is 'copyright'? State the law that covers copyright issues?
TASK 20 - What does 'plagiarism' mean? Outline the steps that a university could take to make students aware of the issue and reduce the occurrences of plagiarism in work handed in.
Accessing controversial information via the Internet
Accessing controversial information via the Internet
One country's laws and values are not necessarily another country's laws and values. If one country decides that hard-core pornography is perfectly legal to show and sell and their citizens put web sites on the Internet, how can another country like the UK stop people viewing this kind of material, even though it is against the law in the UK? The answer is that it can't. Nobody owns or runs the Internet so it is very difficult for anyone to have control over it. We live in a democracy and we expect freedom of expression and to a large degree freedom of information. Most citizens, however, accept that there are times when there is a 'national security' argument for having some information restricted. Before the Internet, each country could decide exactly what their nationals could have access to. Post Internet, however, the situation has completely changed. It is very easy to set up anonymous web sites that have all kinds of controversial material on including pornography, how to make a nuclear bomb and libellous gossip. This information crosses every boundary. It is therefore very difficult to convict anyone of anything anymore!
TASK 21 - Do some research on the history of the Internet. Who 'invented' it and for what purpose did it come into being?
TASK 22 - What is 'controversial information'? Give examples of information that could be considered 'controversial'.
TASK 23 - Explain why it is difficult to control the Internet.
Health and safety
Health and safety
The widespread use of computers in society has brought along with it a wide range of health and safety issues. There is legislation in place to ensure that both employers and employees do their jobs in a safe working environment. In this section, we will outline the problems and the practical steps that can be taken to reduce the problems.Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
This is a condition that can affect anyone who has to use the same parts of their body to make the same kind of movement over and over again. It can affect musicians, secretaries, checkout assistants and computer users, for example. RSI builds up over time and can affect the joints of the hands or the back, for example, and the muscles, nerves and tendons around the joints. It is much easier to prevent than cure! Providing workers with regular rest breaks can reduce this problem.
Eye strain
Constantly looking at a bright Visual Display Unit can cause eye problems. Eyes need to move around to stay lubricated - staring at a screen can cause a condition called 'dry-eye'. Looking at bright screens can strain eyes and cause defective vision. The problems can be reduced by:
Ensuring a good screen contrast. Using a screen filter helps.
Ensuring that users know that they should look away from the screen every 10 minutes or so.
Ensuring users take regular breaks away from the screen.
Ensuring that employees do not have defective vision. They should be given regular eye tests.
Injuries caused by bad posture
People who work for long periods at a computer can suffer from a range of problems such as backache, wrist strain or a sore neck. These are often caused by a bad working posture at the computer or a poorly designed workstation. Employers should ensure that employees can sit properly at computer stations and have had training to ensure that they know how to adjust equipment. Employees have a duty to follow the advice they have been given.
They should be able to adjust seats so that the lower arms are horizontal and at the same height as the keyboard.
They should be able to sit with their thighs horizontal with their legs under the table and have footrests.
They should be able to adjust the height and tilt of screens. Ideally, the eyes should look forward at the screen, not downwards or upwards. The back should be straight and the head should be directly over the spine. If the head is leaning forward or backwards, it puts pressure on the bones of the spine.
They should be able to adjust keyboards and they should be able to use a wrist rest for both the keyboard and the mouse. If wrists are not supported, they can quickly become strained.
They should be able to retrieve hard copy without over-stretching or bending low down.
The working environment
An employee's working environment should be considered. Employers should ask themselves some questions. For example,
Are there any cables that are trailing around the computer that somebody could catch themselves on?
Is the ventilation adequate? Computers create heat. This can cause headaches and make the employees drowsy.
Is the lighting adequate?
Stress
People get stressed for a range of reasons.
New software and hardware products, and new updates, are introduced that have to be learnt. For some older people, this may be a problem, especially if they are trying to keep up with younger employees who have grown up with IT.
Software exists which constantly monitor performance. Data input operators could worry, for example, that they will lose their jobs if they don't go fast enough or make too many mistakes. A strike in July 2003 crippled Heathrow Airport because employees had concerns about the introduction of a new computerised swipe card system.
Some employees may have few outlets to discuss their problems because some working environments involving computers reduce or remove the opportunity for social interaction.
Environmental issues
Computers require energy to build. The components that make up computers also need energy. The majority of energy sources contribute in various degrees to polluting the atmosphere and the environment. Some computers and components are now becoming so cheap that people are simply buying new ones rather than having them repaired when things go wrong. They then 'dispose' of the old ones. A throwaway culture has developed. Many of the electrical components and printed circuit boards in VDUs, computers and other equipment contain toxic substances, for example, mercury. As we become more of a throwaway society, these substances are thrown into the environment. There is a European drive to get us to recycle more but very little still is. A lot of hard copy is still produced. The more paper that is used, the more trees have to be cut down. Even if these are from renewable sources, it involves energy and involves making parts of forests an eyesore. We are still along way off from a paperless society. Opportunities have developed for workers to work from home. If people work from home, they don't have to commute. If they don't have to drive to work, for example, then their cars will not release pollutants into the atmosphere.
TASK 24 - What is RSI, how is it caused and what can be done to help prevent it?
TASK 25 - Give advice to an employer on how to reduce eye strain.
TASK 26 - Draw a diagram showing how a data input operator should sit correctly at a computer workstation.
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