CHAPTER 2 THE INTERNET IN 1980s

2012.5.1/5.2/7.4/7.6/7.8/9.26/9.27/9.30/10.13+/10.23/10.24/10.25

ARPANET started in 1969 with NCP transport protocol initially.[Kleinrock 2010, Leiner 2003] ARPANET were extended to NATO countries; UK and Norway in 1970s.[Kirstein 2009] But it was never extended to Asia or any other country in Europe. ARPANET community realized on NCP’s limitation, and developed the datagram-based network with Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) in 1970s. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was also developed. The transition from NCP to TCP/IPv4 took place from the midnight of December 31 of 1982. ARPANET started to have email exchanges with the overseas network in early 1980s through UUCPNET, CSNET, BITNET, HEPnet and other networks.

Computer network developments started in several countries in Asia in 1970s and 1980s including Australia with ACSnet in 1980, Japan with N1net in 1981 and JUNET in 1984, Korea with SDN in 1982, Indonesia with UNInet in 1984, and India with ERNET in 1986.[Kummerfeld 1985, Ishida 1992, Murai 1992, Chon 1985b, Luhukay 1986] Most of these networks supported UUCP protocol except N1net in Japan. SDN in Korea supported TCP/IP for its backbone in addition to UUCP. ACSnet supported the proprietary protocol called Sydney University Network (SUN) in addition to UUCP for external links.[Kummerfeld 1985]

Proliferation of UNIX operating systems, in particular the Fourth Berkeley Software Distribution (4BSD) based on DEC VAX computers and Sun Workstation made the TCP/IP protocols popular among universities around the world. The TCP/IP network typically starts from campus networks in 1980s. 4BSD provided the necessary software as well as network applications such as email and file transfer. For wide area networks such as national research networks, some countries made IP routers based on minicomputers in 1980s, but we have to wait commercial IP routers from CISCO or Proteon until mid-1980s for wide spread use.

In order to facilitate good usage of the TCP/IP networks in USA and foreign countries, US Government through ARPANET Project provided the country code domain name (ccTLD) from 1985, and the IPv4 address from 1986. The IPv4 addresses were started to be used in USA from 1983.1.1. They were allocated through Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to foreign sites as well as US sites. The domain names with DNS software was used from 1985.1.1. gTLDs such as .com , .net, .org and .edu were available in USA, and .uk, the first ccTLD was available in 1985 when the domain name system became available on ARPENET. Availability of ccTLDs in Asia and other continents such as .au, .jp and .kr needed to wait until the next year, 1986.

We had discussion on the direct IP connections between ARPANET in USA and IPv4 networks in foreign countries other than NATO countries (UK and Norway) during IANW and other occasions in 1980s. US National Science Foundation (NSF) decided to open direct connection at IP level of NSFNET of the US Internet to foreign countries when NSFNET was launched in 1986.

In the fall of 1987 after IANW in Princeton, the follow-up meeting was held in Washington, D.C. between some of the IANW participants and other people from North America and Europe to discuss connectivity between NSFNET and other countries in Europe and North America. This meeting led to creation of Coordination Committee for Intercontinental Research Networking (CCIRN) to coordinate the research networks between Europe and North America including the link coordination. Internet Engineering Planning Group (IEPG) was created under CCIRN to coordinate the Internet engineering issues. CCIRN and IEPG met annually. Asia was invited to join CCIRN and IEPG in 1991 during Copenhagen INET.

US Government took further steps to open the direct IP connections between the Internet through NSFNET in USA and foreign TCP/IP research networks. Some of the US federal government agencies collaborated with foreign research networks in Europe followed by Asia. Pacific COMMnications networking(PACCOM) Project was created between NASA in USA and the national research networks in Asia including Australia, Japan and Korea in 1989. In 1991 NSF and DoE joined NASA as the funding agencies on PACCOM Project in USA, and they decided to use NSF award system.[NSF 1991] The collaboration continued with TransPac in 1990s.[TransPac 1997]

Section 2.1 The Internet Development in Early 1980s

2.2.1 Australia

[from Bob Kummerfeld, PCCS, 1985]

The Australian Computer Science Network began in 1980 when the first version of the Sydney UNIX Network software was developed by Pierre Dick-Lauder and the author at the University of Sydney. At that time, the network consisted of a small number of machines on the University of Sydney an University of New South Wales campuses. This work is described in Kummerfeld and Dick-Lauder. By mid-1983 the network had grown to cover many machines at Sydney and UNSW and a small number of machines on other University sites. The software then underwent a major redesign and rewrite with the current version (SUN III) being distributed in 1984. The network grew rapidly until it now includes machines in all states of Australia.

Initially network hosts were found in University Computer Science Departments, hence the name of the network. However, this has now changed and a large number of network hosts belong to other university departments, government research group and industry.

The Sydney UNIX Network software provides a message delivery service. Message may be submitted to the system at any node in the network and addressed to any other node; the software will provide reliable delivery of the message. Routing is determined entirely by the system, the user only specifies the destination address. Higher level protocols are available that use the message delivery system to provide services such as electronic mail, file transfer, remote printing and a news handler. New higher level protocols are easy to install and work is in progress on file server, remote execution, database access and directory server protocols.

The basic message delivery service uses a store and forward technique with the message being moved from host to host to the destination. The network is entirely host supported. There are no dedicated network node machines.

2.2.2 India

[by Subramani Ramani]

Education and Research NETwork (ERNET) started UUCP email exchanges between NCST and IIT Bombay in 1986/87 and established TCP/IP connectivity between major cities in 1988. A TCP over X.25 connection was the first international link, set up in 1987. This connected India to the Internet through a router at CWI in Amsterdam. A TCP/IP link was commissioned to UUNET’s gateway in Falls Church, MD, in the US in 1988 using a dial-up link that worked round the clock. This dial-up link was replaced by an analogue leased line in 1989.

Inter-city connection within India took a major step forward in 1988, starting with leased lines connecting the ERNET Centre in Bombay with ERNET centres in Delhi and Madras. Links to other cities followed soon after. Initial use of these leased lines was for running UUCP, and in a year or two, Intercity leased lines of ERNET offered high enough bandwidth to run TCP/IP within India.

2.2.3 Japan

[From H. Ishida, “Academic Internetworking in Japan,” INET 1992 Proceedings]

It was in 1984 when an e-mail/e-news exchange network called JUNET (Japanese University/ UNIX NETwork) was initiated by a group of Keio University, Tokyo Institute of Technology and the University of Tokyo researchers. The group leader was Jun Murai(then with Tokyo Institute of Technology). We used telephone lines at 9600 bps and the UUCP protocol to link UNIX computers at the 3 institutions.

The dial-up JUNET was an instant success. The number of participating organizations increased rapidly soon afterwards. Not only universities but also industrial research laboratories began to join. This was an unusual combination of universities and industries in Japan where there are administrative barriers between universities and industries. JUNET was possible because it did not rely on government funds and it was operated completely on volunteer basis. Thus, it was an unofficial network with no recognition from the government.

In the meantime, the BITNETJP, an extension of the BITNET to Japan, came into existence in 1985 by the support of IBM (for initial 3 years) when the Science University of Japan established a 56 Kbps link with the City University of New York. This was the very first international internetworking in Japan.

Then in 1986, we started an international link from JUNET to the CSNET (Computer Science NETwork) in USA using a dial-up packet-switching circuit of KDD (Japan's overseas carrier)'s Venus-P (a packet switching service). In establishing the link from Tokyo University Computer Center to BBN in Boston area, it was fortunate for us to have the generous help from Larry Landweber of Wisconsin University, David Farber of Pennsylvania University, and Hideyuki Tokuda of CMU.

Then, Jun Murai (then with the University of Tokyo) initiated WIDE (Widely Integrated and Distributed Environment) network project in 1987 as a joint project between universities and industrial research laboratories. The WIDE corresponds to a leased line extension of JUNET and was the first true Internet in Japan which employed 64~192 Kbps leased lines and the TCP/IP protocol. With substantial help from Toben Nielsen at the University of Hawaii, WIDE established a 64 Kbps international link to the US Internet through Hawaii in 1989. Most of international mail traffic into and from Japan goes through this link now. It is also possible to use telnet and ftp services internationally in much the same way as in the US Internet. Thus, Japan became a member of the international Internet community.

Figure 2.1 Main links between Japan and USA [from Ishida's paper, INET, Kobe 1992]

2.2.4 Korea

[from Kilnam Chon, IEEE Communications, 2013]

In 1980, a research proposal to develop the first computer network in Korea was made to Ministry of Commerce and Industry of Korean Government, but it was rejected. A revised proposal was made to the same ministry as part of National Project on Computer Research and Development in 1981, and it was approved. An implementation plan was developed for this project in 1981 [Chon 1981], and the network was named Software Development Network (SDN). Later, it was renamed as System Development Network.

The National Project on Computer Research and Development was based on the open systems with open source including the UNIX operating systems. The computer network research group at KIET carried out research and development on the computer network as part of the National Project. The TCP/IP protocols were selected as the base computer network protocols since they harmonized well with the UNIX operating systems, and it is the open system with the open source in many ways. Other network protocols including UUCP and OSI were also supported. [Chon 1985c]

The major undertaking was the IP router development. The ARPANET Interface Message Processor (IMP) from BBN was not available outside USA and the two NATO countries; Norway and UK. The TCP/IP protocol development from scratch was rejected since it would take too much time and we were short of competent human resource. We chose UNET [Borden 1980] from 3Com, the TCP/IP protocol implementation for Ethernet, rather than the TCP/IP implementation under the BSD. UNET TCP/IP could be ported to any UNIX operation system including System V and BSD without much effort. On the other hand, BSD TCP/IP protocols were machine dependent on DEC computers including VAX and PDP-11 computers. In 1982, with a substantial effort on the router development based on the UNET TCP/IP software, we managed to develop the IP routers based on the PDP-11 computers. The TCP/IP link between the PDP-11 computers of KIET and SNU with distance of 300 km was successfully launched

in May 1982 with the initial bandwidth of 1.2 Kbps. This marked the birth of the TCP/IP network in Korea. Later in 1982, the UNET TCP/IP protocols were implemented in the VAX superminicomputers at Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST). It was further implemented in the SSM-16 UNIX computer from Samsung, the commercial product based on the National Project on Computer Research and Development. [Chon 1985c]

UUCP protocol was also implemented as the complimentary network protocol to the TCP/IP since TCP/IP implementation required much more computer and network resources. Moreover, the international TCP/IP links such as the one with ARPANET in USA were not available then. Thus, UUCP link was extensively used for almost all international networking as well as for many domestic links. [Chon 1985c]

Other network protocols such as the OSI protocols and PC communications were also considered for development and deployment. Notable examples include EAN [IANW 1985], X.400 message system from University of British Columbia, and the IP-to-X.25 of CSNET. With the successful development of the TCP/IP networks with two nodes in 1982, we were ready to extend SDN to be the nationwide research network based on TCP/IP as the backbone network. In 1983, we added KAIST to SDN, and moved the network operation and management center to KAIST where we had the dedicated VAX as the SDN hub. In 1985, we had around twenty universities, national laboratories, and company research laboratories as the members of SDN. See Figure 2.2 on SDN Configuration in 1983.

Figure 2.2 SDN Configuration in 1983

SDN consisted of the following networks;

- International dialup network with UUCP

- X.25 networks with IP-to-X.25 of CSNET

- OSI network with X.400 and others

- Domestic backbone network with TCP/IP

- Domestic dialup network with UUCP

- Campus network with TCP/IP

The domestic backbone network of SDN consisted of serial line interface with 1200 bps in 1982. Later in the 1980s, the bandwidth was increased to 9600 bps and more. The international networks are either the dialup network with UUCP, or the X.25 network with IP-to-X.25. The leased line connection to USA was not realized until 1990 due to the USA policy on the restriction of IP connection to foreign countries as well as the high cost of international leased lines.

International connections for SDN had been emphasized since the inception of SDN. Dialup links to UUCPNET in USA and EUNET in Europe were made in 1983 with the bulk of news sent by postal mail in magnetic tape in order to save the international telephone charges. The CSNET connection using dialup was added in 1984, and it was changed to X.25 in early 1985. The main applications in SDN were email including Korean language email, file transfer, virtual terminal, and USENET news. However, overseas links were restricted to email and limited news groups due to expensive overseas communications until the leased line Internet connection using TCP/IP was made between Korea and USA as part of Pacific Communications Network (PACCOM) Project in 1990.[ Pacific 1991]

2.2.5 Indonesia

[From Jos Luhukay, “UNInet, The Indonesian Inter-University Computer Network,” IANW 1986]

A. Aims of Indonesian Inter-University Computer Networks(UNInet)

The Network Laboratory at the University of Indonesia (NETLAB) acts as UNinet's development center. It operates the Indonesian UUCPnet country gateway: indogtw (previously known as indovax), which is accessible through international public switched data- networks (PSDN's). Currently all other nodes operate through the domestic public switched telephone network (PSTN). When a domestic PSDN becomes available, a number of UNinet's nodes may conceivably opt to use the X.25 protocol. At the time of writing, work is continuing to finish connection of the first 13 sites by the first quarter of 1987.

The gateway subnet runs at 1200 bps and is connected through dial-up PSTN. International connections currently use X.28 dial-up PSDN. Gateway-to-host links use whatever services are available locally on-campus: local-area networks, 9.6kbps direct lines, or modem lines through campus PABX.

B. Accessible Sites

Hosts connected over PSTN dialup lines in the first stage of UNInet are as follow:

- University of Indonesia, Jakarta

- Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung

- Gajahmada University , Yogyakarta

- Surabaya Institute of Technology, Surabaya

- Indonesian Open University, Pondok Cabe

- IKIP, Jakarta

- Hasanuddin University, Ujungpandang (Sulawesi)

- Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Bogor

- Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture, Jakarta

- Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta

- National Engineering Laboratory, Bandung

- National Instrumentation Laboratory, Serpong

- National Technology Assessment & Development Board, Jakarta

C. Gateways to Other Networks

There are 3 UUCP gateways to other networks over X.28 dialup PSDN:

USENET & most of other networks :

SDN (South Korea):

ACSNET & CSIRONET (Australia):

seismo

kaist

munnari

C. Administration

UNInet is sponsored by and conducted under the auspices of the Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE), Department of Education and Culture. DGHE is also the main source of funding for the development and operations of UNInet. Technical and administrative support is performed by the NETLAB at University of Indonesia.

D. Current Status

UNInet started with 3 sites, namely University of Indonesia (Jakarta), Bandung Institute of Technology (Bandung) and Gajahmada University (Yogjakarta). The first major development issue at this stage is to set up the proper environment for computer communications to find the best configuration. This often includes "mundane" tasks such as acquiring basic telecommunication services. Interest to join the network is high, although budgetary limitations often dampen the enthusiasm. The list of sites/hosts given above reflects those most ready to join. It is hoped that at the end of the first quarter of 1987, all 13 sites will be connected.

As of August 1986, 5 sites with 7 hosts are linked through UNInet. All links use dial-up telephone lines with 1200 bps modems. Cooperation with the Indonesian Satellite Corp resulted in free packet-switching on the international lines.

E. Future plans

Plans for the future include service expansions and improvements, namely:

a. The use of domestic PSDN as it becomes available. This will be used for a high-speed back-bone service.

b. Protocol improvements by adopting an international standard, in this case the CCITT X.400.

c. Merging the "informal" services of this type of network with those which are more ''formal" in nature. This includes batch-mode library or database accesses, requirements which are high on the priority list of the Indonesian science & technology community.

Section 2.2 Internet Coordination

(1) Network Coordination

By mid-1980s, there were the following Internet-related networks in Asia;

(1) TCP/IP Networks

(2) UUCPNET/USENET

(3) CSNET

(4) BITNET

(5) HEPNET

IPv4 networks became popular for campus LAN and occasionally for domestic networks, primarily due to availability of UNIX BSD with TCP/IP protocols. For the domestic networks, the custom-made routers on VAX minicomputers and SUN workstations became common, but they were eventually replaced by the IP routers from CISCO and Proteon, which became available in mid-1980s. The international IP link from Asia to USA was not realized until PACCOM Project which started in 1989.[Pacific 1991, NSF 1992]] The reasons are US Government policy which did not allow the foreign Internet to link to the Internet in USA (ARPANET) until 1986, and the high cost of the international dedicated line as well as lack of interest on overseas link except to USA. USA decided to allow the foreign Internet to link to the Internet in USA through NSFNET when it was launched in 1986.

UUCP with USENET was most common networks throughout Asia due to availability of the software through UNIX software distribution from ATT Bell Laboratories as well as easy implementation. AsiaNet, which started in 1984 helped other countries in Asia to set up the UUCPNET for email exchange and news.[Kim 1985, Luhukay 1986] Please refer Figure 2.3 on AsiaNet topology in 1995. Even the domestic IPv4 networks such as SDN in Korea used UUCPNET as well as CSNET for the international connection.

Figure 2.3 AsiaNet

Due to high cost of dialup telephone charge as well as X.25 charge, many countries used postal mail of magnetic tape to handle the network traffic, especially news traffic. This was the common practice around the world; Asia, Europe and other continents.

In addition to UUCPNET, CSNET became popular among universities in Asia along other continents. CSNET primarily handles mail traffic and its mail system is compatible to the Internet. It uses X.25 as well as dialup for linking its sites. International Academic NetWorkshop (IANW) was the meeting where CSNET members meet and discuss since CSNET did not have its own meeting.

BITNET became available in Asia starting from Japan in 1985 with very strong support from IBM. BITNET is the subset of VNET of the IBM mainframe computers to handle mail traffic with the leased line. Eventually, BITNET members in Asia formed a consortium, called Consortium of Academic and Research Networks (CAREN) in 1991 like EARN in Europe.

Later, BITNET and CSNET decided to merge, and the Cooperation for Research and Education Networking (CREN) was created in 1988. CREN was closed down in 1990 as all CREN members migrated to NSFNET.

High Energy Physics Network (HEPNET) started with DECNET protocol and later supported TCP/IP protocol. Several sites in China, India and Japan among others in Asia joined HEPNET.

Most international links in Asia is to USA initially. European links were very rare except in West and South Asia. Intra-Asia links were also very rare initially. The Intra-Asia links became common late in 1990s and 2000s with the initiative of Asia Pacific Information Infrastructure Project (APII). One of APII links was realized between Japan and Korea.

(2) Internet Organizations and Meetings

Internet organizations in Asia were ad hoc and informal in 1980s. We have to wait until formation of Asia Pacific Networking Group (APNG) with the original name of Asia Pacific Coordination Committee of Intercontinental Research Networking (APCCIRN) in 1991.[Chon 2012b]

Pacific Computer Communications Symposium (PCCS) in 1985 provided the first large scale Internet Conference in Asia with the research network workshop and AsiaNet meeting as well as technical sessions.[PCCS 1985] Joint Workshop on Computer Communications (JWCC) was created during PCCS to provide annual meeting in Asia from 1986.

International Academic NetWorkshop (IANW) provided another annual meeting for the world since 1982, and Asia started participation in 1985. IANW was succeeded by International NETwork Conference(INET) in 1991, which was hosted from 1992 by Internet Society as it was created then.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) was created in 1986 for the Internet standard development, and Asia started participation from late 1980s. The first IETF in Asia had to wait until 2000.

Section 2.3 PACCOM Project

US Government decided to open IP connections to research and education networks of other countries through NSFNET in 1986. Following the successful deployment of CSNET, a network which provided limited Internet access to computer science departments in 1981, NSF decided to create a research network based on TCP/IP to interconnect supercomputer centers funded by NSF in 1985.

Hawaii High Performance Internet Connection Proposal, NSF Award #9876406 stated "...In the late 1980s the Department of Information and Computer Science of the University of Hawaii was partially funded by NASA to establish a new international regional network, PACCOM. PACCOM was intended to develop a sound network infrastructure in the Pacific in order to meet agency connectivity needs in the region. By implementing links between Hawaii and key locations in the Pacific Rim, PACCOM was instrumental in establishing the first academic and research Internet connections to New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Korea and Hong Kong -- in the era before commercial services were available......" [Hawaii 1998]

Torben Nielson was the project manager of the PACific Communications network(PACCOM) Project funded by NASA in 1989. Later, NSF and DoE also funded, and NSF became the primary agency for the project in 1991 for two years.[NSF 2001] The project detail had the following abstract;

“This award (NSF #9106198) supports infrastructure for research and education computer communications networking in the Pacific region. It is made to the University of Hawaii Manoa for operation of the Pacific Communications Network (PACCOM). PACCOM is a regional initiative in the Pacific area with the objective of providing common communications services to the academic and research sector of each member nation (currently, the US, through the University of Hawaii's computer network, Australia, Japan, Korea and New Zealand).

PACCOM circuits and operations support the connections among the research and academic networks of the member countries, but not the networks themselves. NSF, NASA and DoE share the costs of the US portions of the international circuits, in accordance with the guidelines of the Coordinating Committee for Intercontinental Research Networking. PACCOM circuits terminate in the US at a multiple-agency interconnection point at NASA's Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. The NSFNET node at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California connects to the multi-agency interconnection point.”[NSF 1991]

The following five countries in the Pacific joined PACCOM Project with their funding for the half-circuit;

- Australia(AARNET) to NASA Ames in 1989

- Hong Kong(CUHK) to University of Hawaii in 1991

- Japan(WIDE Project) to University of Hawaii in 1989

- Korea(HANA/SDN) to University of Hawaii in 1990

- New Zealand to NASA Ames in 1989

ERNET in India made the separate arrangement in 1989 to make the least line connection to UUNET in the USA with UNDP funding, which funded the half circuit. UUNET contributed the other half circuit.

Throughout 1990s, each link increased its bandwidth. Then in 1997, the new NSF project, TransPac, made the arrangement with Asia Pacific Advanced Network (APAN) to connect between USA and Asia through Japan.[Indiana 1999] APAN-JP was the counterpart of the TransPac project in Asia with Indiana University as the counterpart in USA.

Reference

[Borden 1980] Bruce S. Borden, Howard S. Charney, Robert M. Metcalfe, and Gregory L. Shaw, “UNET -- standard communication protocols for unix,” A seminar presented by 3Com Corporation, Nov. 1980.

[Chon 1981] Kilnam Chon, SDN - Preliminary, KIET Internal Memo, Gumi, Korea, 1981. (2011.12.29 revised)

[Chon 1983] Kilnam Chon, System Development Network (SDN), Presentation at KAIST, Daejeon, Korea, 1983.

[Chon 1985b] Kilnam Chon, "National and Regional Computer Networks for Academic and Research Communities in the Pacific

Region," Proc. of PCCS, Seoul, 1985.

[Chon 1985c] Kilnam Chon et al, “SDN: A Computer Network for Korean Research Community,” Proc. Pacific Computer Communications Symposium, Seoul, Korea, Oct. 1985, pp.567-570.

[Chon 2005] Kilnam Chon, A Brief History of the Internet in Asia, 2005(revised in 2012). www.APSTART.org

[Chon 2013] Kilnam Chon, et al., "A History of the Internet in Korea," IEEE Communications Magazine, 2013.

[Hawaii 1998] University of Hwaii, Hawaii High Performance Internet Connection, NSF Award #9876406, 1998. http://www.hawaii.edu/internet2/proposal.pdf

[IANW 1985] International Academic Networkshop, Stockholm, July 1985. https://sites.google.com/site/internethistoryasia/lib/ianw-proceedings/ianw-85

[Indiana 1999] Indiana University, “TransPAC Annual Report,” NSF ANI-973210, July 1999. http://www.transpac.org/old-site/documents/1998-1999_ar.html.

[Ishida 1992] Haruhisa Ishida, "Academic Internetworking in Japan," Proc. 1992 INET, Kobe, June 1992.

[Kim 1985] KH Kim and Kilnam Chon, Proceedings of Pacific Computer Communication Symposium 1985.

[Kirstein 2009] Peter Kirstein, “The early history of packet switching in the UK,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol.47, no.2, Feb. 2009, pp.18-26.

[Kleinrock 2010] Leonard Kleinrock, "An Early History of the Internet," IEEE Communications Magazine, vol.48, no.8, Aug. 2010, pp.26-36.

[Kummerfeld 1985] R. J. Kummerfeld, "ACSNET: Current status and future development," Proc. Pacific Computer Communication Symposium, Seoul, Oct. 1985, pp.589-592.

[Leiner 2003] Bob Leiner, et al., A Brief History of the Internet, Internet Society, 2003 (revised). http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/internet-51/history-internet/brief-history-internet

[Luhukay 1986] Jos Luhukay, “UNInet,The Indonesian Inter-University Computer Network,” IANW 1986, Dublin, Aug. 1986.

[Murai 1992a] Jun Murai and Toru Asami, "A Network for Research and Development Communities in Japan - JUNET," Proc. of INET,

Kobe, June 1992.

[NSF 1991] National Science Foundation, Award#9106198 - Pacific Communications Network, 1991. http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=9106198.

[PCCS 1985] PCCS (Pacific Computer Communications Symposium), Seoul, Korea, 1985.

[Tedja 1986] A. Tedja, B. Somali and J. Luhukay, “Development of an Inter-Campus Network: The Indonesian Case,” International Information Management Conference '86, Singapore, 1986.