Argument

The Structure of a Classical Argument

• Introductory paragraph: Sets the stage for the position argued in the essay. It gains the reader’s interest and respect. Ins ome cases, it provides background information on a topic or a problem.

• Thesis statement: States the topic and position you want to argue.

• Evidence and reasons: Supports the position you are arguing on the topic. This is the core of the essay. Each reason or piece of evidence usually consists of a general statement backed up with specific details, including examples and other RENNS. Evidence needs to meet the standards for critical thinking and reasoning to be logical. Depending on the length of the essay, you might devote one or two paragraphs to each reason or type of evidence.

• Response to opposing position: Sometimes referred to as the rebuttal or refutation. This material mentions and defends against an opposite point of view. Often this refutation, which can be lengthy or brief according to the overall length of the essay, appears in its own paragraph or paragraphs—usually immediately before the concluding paragraph or immediately following the introductory paragraph, as a bridge to the rest of the essay.

• Concluding paragraph: Ends the essay logically and gracefully—never abruptly. It often summarizes the argument, elaborates its significance, or calls readers to action.

The Toulmin Model of Argument

• Claim: The main point or central message, usually expressed in the thesis statement.

• Support: Data or other evidence, from broad reasons to specific details.

• Warrants: Underlying assumptions, usually not stated, but clearly implied; readers infer assumptions.

The Structure of a Rogerian Argument

• Introduction: Sets the stage for the position that argued in the essay. It gains the reader’s interest and respect.

• Thesis statement: States the topic and position you want to argue.

• Common ground: Explains the issue, acknowledging that your readers likely do not agree with you. Speculates and respectfully gives attention to the points of agreement you and your readers likely share concerning the underlying problem or issue about your topic. As appropriate, you might include definitions of key terms, historical or social context, prior scholarship, and other related material. This may take one paragraph or several, depending on the complexity of the issue.

• Discussion of your position: Gives evidence and reasons for your stand on the topic, elaborated similarly to the parallel material in a classical argument.

• Concluding paragraph: Summarizes why your position is preferable to your opponent’s.

Guidelines for Reasoning Effectively in Written Argument

• Be logical (logos): Use sound reasoning.

• Enlist the emotions of the reader (pathos): Appeal to the values and beliefs of the reader by arousing the reader’s “better self.”

• Establish creditability (ethos): Show that you, as the writer, can be relied on as a knowledgeable person with good sense.

Revising Written Arguments

• Is the thesis statement about a debatable topic?

• Do the reasons or evidence support the thesis statement? Are the generalizations supported by specific details?

• Does the argument deal with reader needs and concerns?

• Does the argument appeal chiefly to reason? Is it supported by an ethical appeal? If it uses an emotional appeal, is the appeal restrained?

• Is the tone reasonable?

• Is the opposing position stated and refuted?