Listed alphabetically
Abbreviations etc., i.e., and e.g.
etc. means "and so forth," or "continuing in the same way."
i.e. means "that is" or "specifically"
e.g. means "for example"
Punctuate these abbreviations within commas.
Examples:
Buy carrots, oranges, apples, etc., at this shop.
We give all clients an early bird discount, i.e. 10%.
The course includes writing basics, e.g., grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Tip: In good English, use etc. as little as possible. It is better to be specific.
Accept vs. Except
Accept is a verb that has many meanings. It can be used to mean: to receive (to accept a package); say "yes" to (accept an invitation; give credence to (accept an argument); accommodate oneself to (accept one's fate); to take on a responsibility (accept the nomination); or to admit (accept into a group).
Except can be a preposition, a verb, or a conjunction. When used as a preposition it means, with the exclusion of, as in "Everyone except Betty knew the difference between accept and except." As a verb it means to exclude, as in "excepting Betty, we all knew the difference." When used as a conjunction, it "but" or "if not for," as in "Betty would have known, except she skipped high school English classes."
Putting them together: I can accept that I am wrong except when it is pointed out in such a public way!
Adverse vs. Averse
Adverse is an adjective that describes something that is unfavorable or harmful as in: With all this rain, the adverse weather conditions have spoiled our Independence Day picnic.
It comes from the same root word as adversarial.
Averse is also an adjective describing someone who is opposed to something or who dislikes something as in:
She was strongly averse to the committee's decision to ban live music at the summer arts fest.
It comes from from the same root word as aversion.
Putting them together: I am averse to the idea of using illegal drugs because of their adverse effects on my health.
Affect vs. Effect
Only one letter separates these two, but their meaning is quite different. To add to the confusion, both can be used either as nouns or verbs, although “affect” is more commonly used as a verb and “effect” more commonly as a noun. Close attention must be paid to avoid mix-ups!
Affect can be a verb meaning to influence or produce a consequence in as in "I hope missing class won't affect my grade." It can also be used as a noun meaning observed or expressed emotional response as in "He affected a smile when he received his grades."
Effect can also be used as noun to mean a result, or that which is produced through agent to carry out as in "the rain and flooding were a simple case of cause and effect." It can also be used as a verb to mean to become operative, or carry out as in, "The teacher tried to effect a change of attitude in her unruly students."
Putting them together: By affecting tears, the spoiled child had the desired effect on the babysitter, and was given seconds on dessert.
Affront vs. Effontry
Affront is a noun for an action or remark that causes outrage or offense, or a verb meaning to offend sensibilities or values, as in: I did not mean to affront you by interrupting your conversation.
Effrontery is a noun for shameless or insolent boldness, impudent presumption, audacity, or temerity. as in: He has the effrontery to interrupt our conversation!
They are easily confused because both words imply offense and are spelled similarly. But they do, in fact, stem from different Latin roots. Effrontery's root word, effrons, means barefaced or shameless, while affront derives from ad frontem, meaning in [the] face. Close, but not quite the same.
All Ready vs. Already
These two are often confused because they look like the same word with different spelling. In fact, there is a subtle difference that all readers and writers should know.
The phrase all ready means that everyone in a group is prepared or one person is entirely prepared. The fourth-grade girls had studied and were all ready for their spelling test.
The word already is an adverb that means by a particular time or soon. I’m sorry you’re hungry, but I’ve already done the dishes.
Putting it all together. The little boys were all ready to go outside and play; they already had their coats and gloves on.
Allude vs. Elude
Allude means to refer to, to hint at, or to draw attention to something, or to mention something without discussing it at length. For example, "When discussing the benefits of New Year's resolutions, the doctor alluded to the benefits of weight loss."
Elude means to escape from or evade, or to fail to comprehend or attain something, such as "Sleep eluded the insomniac."
Putting them together: "The police chief warned the officers to be vigilant in seeking to arrest the notorious, Valentine's Day kissing bandit, alluding to the previous year when the criminal eluded capture."
Alternate vs. Alternative
These two words are always interchangeable as nouns or adjectives
Alternate means "every other one" in a series, e.g. "You take number one and I'll take number three, and then you take number five, etc."
Alternative means mean one or two possibilities, a choice of options, e.g."You can take number one or number two."
Interestingly,alternate may also mean a substitute, a replacement for something else, while alternativebeing used in the same sense connotes "sense of "choice " that is not implied with alternate in such use, e.g. "You may take an alternate number" vs "You may take the alternative number."
Anxious vs. Eager
These two adjectives both have to do with a person’s state of mind. While they are sometimes confused, their definitions reveal very different connotations.
Anxious is a feeling of worry or nervousness, often, but not always, about an upcoming event. Example: Sandy was anxious while taking the SATs. A bad score could ruin any chance of getting into an Ivy League school.
In this example, Sandy is experiencing anxiety because so much depends on doing well on the SATs.
Eager is a feeling of excitement or anticipation about an (often perceived as pleasant) upcoming event. Example: Sandy was eager to start school at Cornell in the fall.
In this example, Sandy is excited and looking forward to going to Cornell and believes it will be a pleasant experience.
Putting them together: While the pandemic has made millions anxious about going out in public, most are eager to resume their former social lives once a vaccine is generally available.
Assent vs. Ascent
These homonyms are both nouns.
Assent means an agreement, but an ascent is a gain in height, whether through climbing or flight. For example: With your assent, we’ll begin our ascent to the mountain’s peak.
Bazaar vs. Bizarre
It might seem strange, but many people confuse these homophones, despite their very different spellings.
Bazaar is a noun that refers to a fair or shop where things are sold, as in: I bought this lovely vase in the shape of a white elephant, which I plan to give to my mother, at the church bazaar.
Bizarre is an adjective that can be used to describe anything that is strikingly unusual or remarkably out of the ordinary, as in: My mother insists that any vase shaped like a pachyderm is bizarre and she won't have it in her home.
Putting them together is almost too easy: If you want to find something bizarre, just shop at your nearest bazaar.
Bear vs. Bare
Bear, as a noun, can be a large, furry animal or someone who is grumpy. As a verb, to tolerate, to support something (bear a burden), to accept something (as a responsibility), to carry something, or to give birth to a child. Example: Bears do not have the right to bear arms.
Bare, as an adjective, mean uncovered, and in bare arms or a bare hillside or a bare floor. It can also mean simple or minimal, as in the bare minimum. As a verb, it can mean to uncover something (as in the lion bared her teeth} or to expose something that had been concealed (as the Senate committee bared the cover-up scheme).
So the right to bear arms is not the same as the right to bare arms. Or, putting them together: I cannot bear to have bare feet on hot pavement. I don't know how bears can bear it!
Born vs. Borne
Both of these words are the past tense or past participles of the verb "to bear," meaning to carry, support, endure, or give birth to (a child), but they are not interchangeable.
Born refers to something that is brought forth by or as if by birth as in: She was born in a hospital.
Borne refers to everything else that uses the past tense of "to bear," as in: She has borne many hardships on the road to success.
In addition, either word can be used as a part of a phrasal adjective as innatural-born citizen, orinsect-borne diseases,but the distinction between a birth and the act of carrying remains.
Putting it together: When our first-born child graduated from college, I knew all our financial planning had finally borne fruit.
Breech vs. Breach
Breech is a noun that refers to your bottom or something that covers your bottom as in "I always wear my riding breeches when I go to the stable." It can also be the butt end of a gun or cannon, or the presentation of baby that is born hind end first--a breech birth.
Breach refers to a break, an opening, or a gap, or making such a break as in "Ignorance of the law is no excuse to breach it."
This month, putting then together is easy: When I caught my breeches on the barbed wire, I tore a breach in them. (Fortunately, it was not across my breech!)
Capital has many definitions, but capitol has just one. The change of a single letter makes all the difference.
While capital can mean, among other things:
An uppercase letter: a capital A
A supply of something: rebuilding Notre Dame Cathedral required enormous amounts of financial and human capital
A crime eligible for the death penalty: first-degree murder in some jurisdictions is a capital crime
The seat of government or most important city in a country, state, or territory: the capital of Pennsylvania is Harrisburg
The top of a column: a: classical column might have a Doric, Ionian, or Corinthian capital
But by changing the a in capital to an o, you get:
The building that houses a government’s legislature: the state capitol has a golden dome
Putting them together:
It took a lot of capital to build the U. S. Capitol.
Carrot, Carat, Karet, Caret
They all sound the same, but if you use the wrong one, you will be misunderstood--or worse, thought ignorant of the difference between an important vegetable and these other words.
Carrot is the most easily recognized orange root vegetable and an important member of the salad bar. You can enjoy baby carrots, shredded carrots, cooked carrots, raw carrots. They're good for any time of day--and Bugs Bunny always has one handy. 'Nuff said.
Carat is a measurement of weight for gems, such as diamonds. One carat equals 200 milligrams. The Hope Diamond not only carries a curse, but it carries a weight of 45.52 carats.
Karat is another term used by jewelers and is a measure of the purity of gold. It is abbreviated by the letter "K." Twenty-four karats = pure gold. It's softer and pricier than 10K,14K, or 18K, but it's oh, so pretty.
Caret is an editor's mark that looks like this: ^. It indicates where something is inserted, or needs to be inserted in a sentence.
Hmmm--how do we get all of these words into one sentence? How's this?
My editor inserted a caret to tell me to write in the number I omitted when I wrote, "While shopping for carrots I caught my engagement ring--a half-carat diamond set in 14 karat gold--on the edge of the counter."
Compare to vs. Compare with
We as humans love to draw comparisons, sizing up and categorizing things to help us make sense of the world. They allow us to analyze facts and make important decisions. How does the price of a Toyota compare with that of a Rolls? Her voice was compared to a nightingale, it was so musical. But one of the most common grammar mistakes happens with the word “compare.”
Compare to means that you are showing how like one thing is to another.
Compare with means that you are looking at both the similarities and the differences between two things.
In a comparative literature class, for example, you would compare one author’s style with another’s, to examine how they were alike and how they differed.
Jacques Barzun, a historian quoted in the grammar guidebook Words on Words, said, “Any writer can compare himself with Shakespeare and discover how far he falls short. If he compares himself to Shakespeare – in other words, puts himself on the same level – then he had better think again.”
Continual vs. Continuous
While it might seem that these words mean the same thing (and in fact were pretty much synonymous until the 20th century) in today's usage, they have different shades of meaning of which you should be aware.
Continual is used to describe something that occurs frequently, but not unceasingly, such as: His continual lectures on proper word usage drove his children to distraction. In this example, the children knew that whatever their father was doing at the moment, another lecture would come along soon enough, making the lectures continual.
Continuous is used to describe something that occurs without interruption, such as: The Moravian Book Shop in Bethlehem. Pennsylvania is the nation's oldest, continuously operating book store.
Putting them together: The school field trip was marred by continuous rain, and continual bickering among the children who could not go outside to play.
Council vs. Counsel
"Council" is a noun that denotes an assembly of people--usually one brought together for the purpose of deliberating, legislating, or offering advice. A city council, for instance, might consider petitions, pass regulations, or offer advice to a mayor.
"Counsel" is also a noun. It means advice (or a lawyer who offers advice), which is where the confusion might originate. It can also be a verb, "to counsel," which means to give advice.
Putting them together: Because of the threat from a distant power, the King's Council counselled him to sign a mutual-defense treaty with their neighbors.
Cream vs. Creme
Cream is a dairy product. It’s the part of milk that contains the butterfat. It’s the part that can be whipped until light and fluffy, the perfect topping for a slice of pie.
Because of cream’s lusciousness, the word also means the best of, as in the cream of the crop. It also can refer to a pale yellow, the color of cream. At the opposite end of the spectrum, it can also mean to wreck or smash.
Creme (or crème) is the French spelling of cream, but it also means a sweet liqueur. That could be crème de cassis or crème de cacao.
Cream is pronounced kreem, and creme, krehm.
The walls of the room were cream, accented by trim in bright yellow.
The waiter set the dessert before each guest: a ramekin of crème brûlée.
Currently vs. Presently
Many Americans think that "presently" means right now, but as you will see presently, they are incorrect.
Currently means right now, in the present, at the present time, as in: Currently the year is 2012. We are currently in the month of July.
Presently is an adverb that in the US and Canada means soon, in the near future, directly, or before long, as in: Presently it will be the month of August.
"I will make dinner presently," means I will get to it soon. (If you're starving, you'd better grab a carrot.) If you go to the doctor's office, though, and hear that she will see you presently, take a seat. It might be a while.
But, if you're on the other side of the pond in the UK, "presently" is used to mean "right now," or "for now," as in: David Cameron is presently the Prime Minister. (At least they spell it the same way!)
Currently is unambiguous. On both sides of the Atlantic, this is understood to mean now, or at present. But remember that in the US and Canada, it does not mean presently.
Dessert vs. Desert vs. Desert
Dessert (pronounced dih-zurt) is that yummy dish you get after dinner—cake, cookies pie, etc.
Desert (pronounced as dez-ert) and means arid or desolate, bare. Think about living in the middle of the Mojave Desert.
Desert (pronounced as dih-zurt) and means abandon or leave without permission (especially in referring to the military) or to fail someone it a time of need. A frequent synonym is forsake.
Putting it all together. "The pirates deserted their captain on a desert island (which was also deserted), but at least they left her with a chocolate cake for dessert."
Disburse vs. Disperse
These two are a troublesome pair. Not only do they sound alike, their meanings are close. Still, if you don't want to appear ignorant, it's important to use them correctly.
Disburse means to pay money out of a fund. For instance, the shareholders' dividends were disbursed at the end of the year.
Disperse means to distribute or spread over a wide area. For instance, the breeze helped the dandelion seeds disperse all over the neighborhood.
So, use disburse for money--unless you're dropping it from the top of a tall building, in which case, the money will be dispersed!
Discrete vs. Discreet vs. Discretion
These homophones (different words that sound the same) can be very confusing, but the placement of the second "e" makes a big difference in the meaning.
Discrete is an adjective that means separate, individual, or distinct.
Deriving from the same Latin root, discretus, the word discreet has morphed over time to mean circumspect and even carefully unobtrusive.
Discreet is more closely related to discretion, which means behaving or speaking in a way that will not reveal private information or cause offense.
Disparate vs. Desperate
These two words are easily confused, because they look almost identical at a passing glance. Linguistically, only a pair of verbs separate them from each other. Don’t let their visual similarity fool you, however! These two words have very different—we could even say disparate—meanings.
Today, disparate is used as an adjective to describes things that are unalike. Synonyms include different, dissimilar, and contrasting. Pete’s weekends in the country seemed completely disparate from his hectic city job. In the past, disparate was also used as a noun, but that version of the word has fallen into disuse and is now considered archaic.
Desperate is also an adjective. It can be used to describe an emotion where a person has reached a crisis and must make a powerful attempt to reach their goals or risk failing them. Jack reached desperately for the rock, knowing if he didn’t maintain his grip, he would fall. It can also describe a situation for which there is little hope of a good outcome. In a desperate attempt to save her dog’s life, Ruth paid a thousand dollars in vet fees.
Let’s use both words in a sentence. Carrie’s desperate work to finish her essay the night before it was due was disparate from Sue’s, who had finished hers a week ago.
Dual, from the Latin base word dualis meaning two, indicates anything with two, often complementary, elements. Related to our English word duo, dual is often used in such phrases as “dual personality,” “dual exhaust system (with two tailpipes),” or “dual purpose.”
Duel has a somewhat related but very different meaning. While the Latin base word is the same, duel refers to a contest or combat between two people (or sometimes two groups). We often see it used as “a duel to the death” or even “dueling banjos.”
Putting them together:
The peace treaty served the dual purpose of settling the position of the land borders and preventing the two parties from dueling any further.
These two adjectives sound much alike, but have different meanings that can easily be confused.
Elusive means something that is hard to grab, to find, or to remember. Sarah tried to remember her boss's child's name, but it was too elusive.
Illusive comes from the same root as Illusion. It refers to something that might appear real, yet is not. That's why we chose this word for the title of our new anthology, Illusive Worlds: Sweet, Funny, and Strange Tales of Science Fiction and Fantasy.
Putting it together, Marlo tried to grasp the illusive meaning of the abstract poem, but it remained too elusive.
Emigrate vs. Immigrate
There is much discussion these days about refugees and immigration. As thorny as those problems are, it can be nearly as confusing to use the right word when describing those moving from one country to another. This springs from the fact that one moving from one country of residence to another is both emigrating and immigrating. But first, let’s define the terms:
To emigrate is to leave a home country with the intention to permanently reside in another country. This is most appropriately defined as “to go” or “to leave”; e.g., “My cousin emigrated from India for America to take the helm of a high-tech firm.” A good memory aid is that the “E” in emigrate can also stand for “Exit.”
To immigrate is to enter a country other than one’s homeland with the intention of permanently residing there. This is most appropriately defined as “to come” or “to enter”; e.g., “The owner of the wonderful Brazilian restaurant on Main Street immigrated to the U.S. in 2009.” To help you remember, think of the “I” in immigrate as also standing for “In.”
“Migrate” is the base of both words, but the Latin prefixes make all the difference. IM- means “in” (so immigrate is migrate in), while E- means “out of” (so emigrate is migrate out of).
You might hear that one emigrates “from” but immigrates “to,” but it’s not as simple as that. Both words describe leaving one country to live in another, but it is really the point of view of the speaker or writer that matters. One looking at the move from the first country of residence would see the move as emigrating, whereas someone from the new country would see the same action as immigrating. E.g., “I was so sorry when my brother decided to emigrate to New Zealand, leaving our ancestral home in Chicago.” Here one emigrates, despite use of the preposition “to” because of the speaker/writer’s point of view. The speaker would not say they were sorry to see their brother “come” to New Zealand, rather they are sorry to see him “go.”
Putting it all together should be easy, right? “The so-called “Potato Famine” caused many Irish families to emigrate their homeland, many of whom immigrated to the United States.”
Eminent, Immanent, Imminent
Eminent means famous, respected, highly regarded, as in "The Pope's eminent teachings are followed all over the world."
Immanent means inherent or intrinsic as in "Beauty is not something imposed but rather something immanent."
Imminent means ready to take place, likely to occur at any moment, as in "The toddler was in imminent danger when she ran out into the busy street."
Putting them together: The big black clouds in the sky signaled that a storm was imminent, but the eminent leader of the free world knew that there was no time to lose so he raced forward, sword in hand, his courage immanent in his proud gait.
Empathy vs. Sympathy
The two words that feature in this issue’s column are something we could all use a lot more of in today’s world. They are empathy and sympathy. Many writers use them interchangeably, but in fact, their meanings, although similar, are quite distinct from one another.
Empathy relates to the ability to understand a person’s feelings. It requires the ability to either imagine yourself in the other person’s position, or for you to have endured an experience similar to theirs, which gives you a shared perspective. Having empathy for another person means you understand why they are feeling as they do but does not automatically make you sympathetic to their behavior.
Sympathy is feeling sorrow in another person’s behalf. You may not understand why the other person is distressed or grieving, but you feel sad on account of their sorrow.
Here’s a sentence. Having failed her own exam, Sally empathized with Rosa’s grief over her poor grades, but couldn’t sympathize much, as Rosa rarely studied.
Enquire / Enquiry vs. Inquire / Inquiry
In British English there’s a subtle difference between enquiry and inquiry, but Americans tend to use inquiry for both. As a result the lines are getting blurred, but generally, when you enquire about someone or something you ask about them.
For example: She enquired about his health. He was touched by her enquiry.
In British English we use inquiry when we’re talking about more official investigations.
For example: She thought the committee had no right to inquire into her politics. Or: There was an inquiry into the death of Ian Tomlinson.
Note-if you can’t decide, stick to inquire/inquiry. You’ll sound like an American.
Exasperate vs. Exacerbate
These two words are often confused in part because they are long words that sound similar. Still, they are not interchageable.
Exasperate (eggs-ass-per-ate) means to frustrate or infuriate.
Exacerbate (eggs-ass-er-bate) means to cause a situation or feeling to worsen.
So, when a situation is frustrating, it can be said to be exasperating; it's only exacerbated when it gets even worse.
Explicit vs. Implicit
These words are often used interchangeably, but they are opposites--much like expressed vs. implied.
Explicit means something that is stated or expressed outright. What is stated means exactly what is said, as in "I gave you explicit instructions, but you still did not follow them."
Implicit means that something is not stated directly, but is understood only because of context. , tone, or other context. It is implied as in "While I understood the instructions, I believed that permission to deviate from them was implicit."
Exult vs. Exalt
These two words vary by only one letter, and at first glance might easily be mistaken for the same word. But one little letter indicates a change in meaning.
To exult means to rejoice, as in "When their team finally won the Super Bowl, the Eagles fans exulted."
To exalt means to elevate in status or to glorify something or someone, as in, "The Queen's exalted position gave her the power to do much good for her people."
Putting them together, "The students exulted when their school's president announced that, thanks to a donation from an exalted, successful alum, they were all graduating from school debt-free."
As a side note, a group of larks is known as an exaltation of larks. (We wonder if they exulted when they heard that!)
Fare vs. Fair
Fare and fair are pronounced the same and have many different meanings spanning different parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
This can make things very confusing. Is it fare well or farewell? And when you ask someone how things turned out, should you say “How did you fare?” or “How did you fair?”
Both fair and fare are commonly used as nouns: Fair usually refers to an event; fare commonly refers to fees for rides or to a specific kind of food or entertainment. If you want a verb, you probably want fare, especially if it pertains to how things turn out. If you want an adjective, you nearly always want fair, which can mean honest, proper, average, pale, and clear, among other things. Fare as an adjective could describe something related to a ride fee: a fare sheet or fare schedule.
The conditions are fair for outdoor activities today.
How did you fare at the grocery store?
Fewer vs. Less
{Sigh} This is a pet peeve of mine. It's true that both words refer to quantity, but they are not interchangeable. It's not a “tom-A-to/ta-ma-TOE” kind of thing.
Less refers to a diminished quantity of a substance or something that is not counted. Water, for example, can be measured, but unless you are referring to the individual drops/teaspoons/cups of water, you should use less . . .
Unless the are. In that case, you would use fewer. You always choose fewer when referring to things that are counted (e.g. people, teaspoons, decimal points, pages, degrees)
PUTTING ALL TOGETHER: The sugar cookie dough is too soft and I don't like the color I created. Next time, I will mix in less water and two fewer drops of food coloring. OR The icing is runny, too. Next time, I will mix in fewer teaspoons of water and less food coloring.
See?
Flesh Out vs. Flush Out
While these sound similar, they have different meanings.
The term "flesh out" is to take a framework (e.g. an outline or a skeleton) and adding details, substance, and--well, flesh to the bones of an idea.
To "Flush out" means to roust or cause someone to move from a hiding place.
Putting them together: The new hunter fleshed out the slightly exaggerated story of his exploits with a tale of how he flushed out the fox from its hiding place.
Historic vs. Historical
Historic means something of importance or significance in history. For example: The election of the first African-American president was a historic event.
Historical is used to describe something that concerns or relates to events from the past, such as a historical movie or historical data.
Putting them together: The historical novel depicted the fall of the Roman Empire--a truly historic moment in western civilization.
And in case you're wondering, always use "a" rather than "an" before either word--at least in the US where the words start with a hard "H" sound. (Feel free to use "an" across the pond where the H is silent.)
Hoard vs. Horde
Hoard is what people do when they don't want to run out of something--usually something that is scarce, valuable, or treasured. It means to amass a large quantity of something.
Fantasy writers use this word to describe the gold accumulated by dragons.
Hoarders are people who are interested in acquisition and retention of things--as seen on T.V.
Horde, when used as a noun, means mob, crowd, or large group of people or animals. As a verb, it means to assemble into a horde or large group.
So, when the end of the world comes, you might want to hoard canned goods--and a good can opener--before hordes of
scavenging mutants get them all!
Hopeful vs. Hopefully
It doesn't take a grammar scholar to figure out that the word "hopeful" means "full of hope." We use it in such sentences as, "The students were hopeful that the predicted storm would give them a snow day."
The word "hopefully," however, is often incorrectly used as a synonym for "we (I, you, he, she) hope(s) in such sentences as, "Hopefully, we will all stick to our New Year's resolutions."
But if we look at the -ly suffix on hopefully, we will understand that it is, in fact, an adverb. Adverbs tell us how something is done (e.g. the ketchup poured out slowly.) Slowly is the adverb in that sentence.
The adverb hopefully means that something is done in a hopeful manner. Clearly, using the examples above, it does not make sense to say that, "In a hopeful manner, we will have a snow day tomorrow."
Rather, hopefully tells a reader how hope is expressed or felt. For example, it is correctly used in: "We might have a snow day tomorrow," Jane said hopefully.
We are hopeful that this will help you to use hopefully as an adverb!
Jury-rig? Jerry-built? Jerry-rig?
Only two of the above hyphenated words are accepted in formal English. Can you tell which is the non-standard choice?
These words cause a lot of confusion because they not only sound alike, but they also have similar meanings.
Jury-rig is a verb that means to put something together from materials at hand to temporarily serve a specific purpose. The popular television show MacGyver featured many items that were jury-rigged (the adjective form of the word). Example: The Apollo 13 astronauts would not have survived had they not been able to jury-rig a carbon dioxide scrubber to give them sufficient breathable air.
Jerry-built is an adjective meaning shoddy, appliied to anything poorly built and/or made of inferior materials. Example: The jerry-built book shelf tumbled apart as soon as the set of encyclopedias was in place.
Jerry-rig is a misspelling of jury-rig, which both adds to and comes from the confusion of the two generally accepted words. But, as in any living language, what starts as an error can eventually gain acceptance. Jerry-rig is beginning to receive acceptance by some sources, but is still considered incorrect by most.
Lie, Lay, Laid, and Lain
(For our purposes, we are not talking about the word "lie" as in falsehood. We're talking about verb form of "to lie" that has to do with lying down.)
Lie is used in the present tense when the subject of the sentence (I, you, he, she, we, they, etc.) assumes or stays in a resting position--usually horizontal or parallel to the floor or ground. you can lie on a bed or lie on the floor or lie on the ground, but if you lie on a job application, for our purposes it means you put it under you as you assumed the position of rest.
Lay means to pus something down, or cause it to lie down. "Lay" is used in the present tense when the subject of a sentence (I, you, etc.) put something down. The think you put down is the object of the sentence. You can lay your hands in your lap, lay a book on the table, or lay a job application on a desk (even if you don't lie on it afterwards.)
Laid is the past tense of "lay." If you put something down yesterday, you laid it down. If you want to submit that somewhat-wrinkled job application, you'll have to pick it up from where you laid it. You also use laid with helping verbs such as "had laid."
(Now here's where it gets tricky. . . . Don't let your head explode. We'll make sense of this yet.)
Lay is also the past tense of "lie." When it's used that way, it indicates an action by the subject of the sentence (I, you, etc.) such as "I lay on the couch for an hour and forgot about applying for a job." Notice that you use "lay" instead of "laid.:
What about helping verbs?For "lie" you use "lain" as in, "The job application had lain on my desk for several days."
So the moral of this tale is that if the subject of the sentence is the one lying down, use lie for present tense, lay for past tense, and lain with helping verbs. If the subject is setting something down, use lay for present tense, and laid for past tense or with helping verbs.
And, for goodness sake, stop lying around and submit that job application!
Loath vs. Loathe vs. Loathsome
Loath is an adjective that means "unwilling" or "reluctant," as in, "The teacher was loath to write a letter of recommendation for the C+ student."
Loathe, on the other hand, is a verb that means "to detest" or "to hate." "I loathed doing homework so much, that I seldom finish it. Perhaps that why I only got a C+."
Loathsome is an adjective meaning "disgusting" or "repulsive." "My sister saw my report card and said that for someone who could do better, a C+ grade was loathsome."
Putting them all together is a challenge. Hmmm. How about: "I was loath to read my friend's manuscript for fear I would loath it or find the protagonist loathsome."
Nauseous vs. Nauseated
Nauseous – Meaning sickening to contemplate, disgusting or loathsome, as in “His book and opinions are nauseous!”
Nauseated – Meaning sick to the stomach, to be affected with nausea, “I am nauseated by his cooking.”
The classic warning is not to say “I am nauseous” unless you are sure you are making everyone around you sick to their stomachs. The trick here is to know which side of the sickening effect you’re on, i.e., you are either sick or making someone else sick.
Noisy vs. Noisome
Both of these adjectives, at first glance, suggest the sense of hearing, but only one relates to that sense. The other has a very different meaning.
If something is noisy, it emits sound—usually at a high volume. Clamorous, boisterous, and cacophonous are synonyms. It connotes unpleasant sound, e.g. The noisy crows drowned out the lovely song birds.
Noisome, while containing the same first four letters, does not pertain to sound. It is defined as disgusting, offensive, and usually pertains to odor! In addition, it can mean harmful to health. The noisome garbage cans gave the house an air of rot. Putting them together: Despite the noisy crowd being held back by police officers, the medical examiner diligently inspected the noisome, deteriorating corpse found in the alley.
Noxious vs. obnoxious
Since one of these words contains the other, it is natural to assume their meanings are related—and they are. Both of these adjectives come from the Latin root word noxius, which translates to harm. But they are not synonymous.
Noxious indicates something harmful to health, mind, or behavior. Noxious weeds can be toxic. Noxious doctrines can poison a mind. A noxious lack of morals can corrupt one’s behavior. Used in a sentence: The noxious stench made me puke.
Obnoxious, on the other hand, refers to something that is disgusting, displeasing, and can cause resentment, but does not necessarily cause harm. For instance: The obnoxious stranger on the subway made everyone’s ride less pleasant.
Putting them together:
Our obnoxious neighbor left out rotting food that could be noxious to wildlife in the area.
Octopus
For this issue’s mixed-up words, we will keep on the overall theme and tackle one of the most long-standing questions in the English language…
Just how do you pluralize “octopus”?
It’s surprising how long people have argued over this grammatical issue. The debate goes back to the early nineteenth century. Some of these early writers/speakers championed “octopi” as the correct pluralization, claiming that a word of Latin origin should use the Latin pluralization.
Alas, “octopus” is of Greek origin. (And even if it was Latin, using “pi” to pluralize it would be grammatically incorrect.”
The Greek pluralization of “octopus” is “octopodes.” That’s a four-syllable word; not a three, with the last syllable being pronounced similar to “days.” Awkward, right?
Fortunately, the correct answer all along has been the fairly obvious and simple “octopuses.” No, that’s neither a Greek nor Latin pluralization. Here’s the thing, though. There is not another English word for “octopus.” We have commandeered it, but then English is a piratical language that has stolen many of its terms from other languages. Once they have been ours for a while, they become, to all intents and purposes, English. After all, no English speaker is particularly interested in coming up with a whole new word for an octopus, nor is any English speaker desperately seeking such a word.
So, in English, the proper way to pluralize a word that ends in “s” is to add an “es” at the finish.
Voila. Octopuses.
You’re welcome.
Past vs. Passed
The differences in these words might seem more related to spelling than to meaning, but, in fact, their definitions are different.
Past can be a noun, an adverb, or a preposition, each with its own meaning.
As a noun, it means a previous time, such as: Today people dress casually, but I miss the elegant fashions of the past.
As an adverb, it tells the reader how/where the modified verb has acted as: That’s the third time that red car has driven past our house. It can also indicate a passage of time, as in: The sports season went past with my team never getting out of last place.
As a preposition, it means on the other side of or later than, as with: The store is just past the intersection, or It is well past time for dinner.
Passed, however, is the past tense of the verb to pass. For example: On my way here, I passed three Starbucks in only five blocks, or I was so sorry to learn your uncle passed away.
N.B. The trickiest thing about these two words is that you can use each word in very similiar contexts, e.g. The semi-truck passed us (verb) vs. the semi-truck went past us (adverb).
Putting it all together:
While we visited an archeological dig, an investigator passed us, accidentally dropping an artifact they’d uncovered from the distant past (noun).
Peace vs. Piece
Most of us can probably understand these homophones sufficiently to distinguish the difference between a "piece" of pumpkin pie and "peace" on earth, but lately I've observed a piece of erroneous writing with which I am not at peace.
Specifically, the phrase "piece of mind" keeps popping up; a cliche which, unfortunately for the writers concerned, simply does not exist. Rather, the correct phase is "peace of mind," as in "hearing the doctor's reassuring words brought me peace of mind." In other words, the mind of the writer, which was once troubled, is now at peace.
The erroneous phrase "piece of mind" makes it sounds like the writer is lacking a chunk of the brain and must wander the world in search of her missing parts. An amusing image, to be sure, but not a correct idiom.
I believe this confusion is rooted in another expression, "a piece of my mind," as in "I'm going to go give that bully a piece of my mind." To give someone a piece of your mind is to tell them off, to let them know what you think of them or of their behavior. It stems from conflict, which is probably why you rarely see the reverse error "I'm going to give that bully a peace of my mind."
It would give me great peace of mind if I could trust that everyone would brush up on their homophones. The next writer who conflates peace and piece will certainly get a piece of my mind.
Peak, Pique, Peek
Peak means a high point, like the top of a mountain or a pinnacle of achievement. If your "Peak/Pique/Peek" word has an "a" in it, think of it being for apex.
Pique comes from the French word for "prick." So if something pricks your curiosity, use pique. Pique can also be a synonym for anger.
Peek means to use your eyes, usually to take a surreptitious or forbidden look at something. Two e's in the word can remind you of two eyes.
So even though those brightly-wrapped holiday packages pique your interest, don't peek! That way, when you open it, your anticipation will peak!
These two words sound similar but their meanings are quite different.
Perquisite, according to Webster’s, is a privilege or profit provided beyond a person’s regular salary, particularly if that bit of extra money or privilege is expected by the person. It can also mean a gratuity or tip. The term perks is a shortened version of perquisite. That job comes with a lot of perks. Or, as the CEO of the company, he enjoyed a number of perquisites, including a luxury car.
Requisite doesn’t refer to anything that’s a bonus. Rather, it means something that’s essential or necessary. She gathered the requisite paperwork for the application.
Persecute vs. Prosecute
Persecute is a verb meaning to harass or pursue in order to injure or afflict, as in:The bully not only made life miserable for his classmates, he persecuted his little sister at home.
Prosecute is a verb meaning to begin or carry out a legal claim against someone, generally for a crime, or to act as the prosecutor in such an action. The government determined that there was sufficient evidence to prosecute the bully for harassment. It can also mean to see something through to the end as in: The king prosecuted the war until he met with victory.
Putting them together isn't really very hard: If you are going to persecute innocent victims, you must be prepared to be prosecuted.
Precede vs. Proceed
Precede is a verb meaning: to gobefore, as in place,order, rank,importance, or time.
Proceed is a verb with several different shades of meaning:
to move or go forward or onward,especially after stopping; to carry on or continue any action or process; to go on to do something, or; to continue one's discourse. For example: The honored guest preceded the rest of the company as they proceeded into the dining room.
Principle vs. Principal
Principle is a noun that means an important or fundamental standard, especially for behavior. Your rules to live by are your principles.
Principal, while sounding the same, has a variety of meanings. One is as an adjective, meaning the most important, like the pricipal reason I like January is that I can look forward to my seed catalogs coming in the near future.
Principal can also be used as a noun in financial circles to refer to the amount of a loan or amount of money invested as opposed to interest owed or earned. You'll sometimes hear people talk about retired people living on the interest of their investments, and leaving the principal intact for emergencies--or their grandchildren!
It has many other meanings, including the head of a school (remember "the principal is your pal"?) or to indictate a lead role in a play.
Prone vs. Supine
Everyone knows that if you are prone, you are lying down, right?
Well, that's right as far as it goes, but "prone" is more specific than that. It means that you are prostrate--lying face down, on your chest or stomach.
Surprised?
Many people are even more surprised when they learn that what they've long described as lying prone--lying horizontally on their back, or face up--is actually "supine."
Adding to the confusion is that "prone" has an additional meaning: being likely to.
For instance:
People with narcolepsy are prone to falling asleep without notice.
(But whether they fall prone or supine is unspecified.)
So why isn't there a word for lying horizontally on one's side?
Because . . .
this is English--not logic.
Sight/Site/Cite
Sight is a noun and refers to seeing--sensing with your eyes, or perhaps your mind's eye.
Site, also a noun, means "location." Often this is a physical location, such as the site of the new school, but it can also be used to describe a virtual location, such as a web site.
Cite is a verb related to the word "citation." When one is using a quotation or directing others to a source of information, one is citing the source.
Stationary vs. Stationery
Even folks who know the different meanings of the two words above don't always realize that there are two different spellings for these words.
Stationary--with an a--is an adjective that means immobile; not moving or moveable; unchanging as in: The roadblock has remained stationary since the bridge washed out last spring.
Stationery, on the other hand, is a noun meaning writing paper. It might also refer to other writing materials including envelopes or pens, as in: I like to make a cup of hot cocoa before I get out my holiday stationery to write my annual holiday letter.
Putting them together: After years of moving every few months, we finally have a stationary address, so I'll have it printed on my monogrammed stationery
Tacet vs. Tacit
Both of these words can be pronounced similarly and both have similar root meanings, but each is used in different circumstances.
To a musician, especially in classical music, the word tacet printed on the score means the player or vocalist can take a break—they won't be needed for a long while. Tacet al fine means that the instrument or voice has no more to play from that point on.
The word, which has been in use since the early 1700s, comes from the Latin word that means to be silent.
An alternative pronunciation is TAH-ket.
Tacit is about a century older than tacet, and comes from the same Latin root, or from Middle French, meaning that is passed over in silence.
In current usage, it means implied or indicated, but not actually expressed—a tacit admission of guilt, or a tacit prayer. Or, in an example from Bram Stoker: "The blush was a tacit answer."
In older usage, it meant to be silent or noiseless. An example from a Robert Browning poem: "No wind that cared trouble the tacit woods."
They're, Their, There
They're is a contraction--the smashing together of two words: "they" and "are." When we push them together, we take out the "a" in the word "are" and put in an apostrophe to show where a letter is missing. If you see the word "they're" it always indicates a contraction.
Their is the possessive form of the word "they." When something belongs to them we say it is their possession.
There means in or at a particular place or position. It can also be used as an interjection--often signifying that a task is completed.
They're going to the car to see if they left their grocery bags there. There! That was easy.
Through, Threw, Thorough, Though
While some of these look alike, and some of them sound alike, each of these words had a different meaning. Here are their definitions so you can keep them straight.
Through – movement indicating passing from one side of something to the other. He walked through the crowd.
Threw – past tense of the verb throw. She threw her pocketbook on the counter.
Thorough – very careful, fully done, or absolute. The police conducted a thorough search for the missing child.
Though – in spite of the fact, and yet, despite being, however. Though she enjoyed photography, she decided to become a novelist.
To make it clear: Though I didn't think I could do it, after a thorough examination of the trajectory, I threw the ball through the net from half court and won a car!
Through vs. Thru
Thru – Hey! This is word, isn’t it?
Can’t I just replace through with thru? Fewer letters, obvious pronunciation.
Evidently, the answer is no. Unless you’re writing a blog, or sending a note to your sweetie in Algebra, the correct spelling is through.
But, wait, you know those lanes at Micky D’s where they toss hamburgers and fries out a window? That’s a drive-thru.
To, Too, and Two
To is used as a preposition before a noun or as an infinitive before a verb! Mom will you take me to school? I really want to go.
Too is a synonym of also. It can also indicate excessiveness. If you can replace too with also and it still makes sense then you are using it to mean “also” correctly. I am going to school, too. (I am going to school, also.) I ate too many candy bars.
Two just spells out the number 2. This should be easy, right? There are no two days alike.
Now to put them all together: I want to have another piece of candy because my sister had two more pieces than me, and so she has already eaten too much, and I’m going to bed soon.
Trouper vs. Trooper
These two words cause a lot of confusion, in part because their root words, troop and troupe seem similar. Both words are derived from the same French word, troupe, meaning a group of people. The word has translated into English with two spellings which have distinct meanings.
A troupe is a group of performers, such as an acting troupe, whereas troops are members of the armed forces, police, or similar occupations. So, if one is a trouper, one is a member of a group of performers; if one is a trooper, one is a member of the armed forces, police force, etc.
The phrase "she is such a trouper," is often misspelled as "trooper," but it refers to someone who has risen above unforeseen obstacles and persevered, perhaps against the odds. Its connection with performers comes from the motto that no matter the hardship, the show must go on.
Venomous vs. Poisonous
These two adjectives don’t look anything alike, so you’re not likely to type one while meaning the other. The confusion arises from knowing the difference between venom and poison. Both are caustic substances, but they are administered in different ways.
Poison is a passively toxic substance. It must be ingested by the person or animal that is poisoned. Plants can be poisonous, as are the skins of the notorious poison dart frogs, and numerous insects. If you eat or touch them, you may get sick, but they won’t actively come to you.
In contrast, there is no such thing as a poisonous snake. You can eat them without any ill effect! Snakes have venom, which is a substance they secrete for use in hunting or self-defense. Any substance that is actively injected by an animal is venom, not poison. There is no such thing as a venomous plant outside of speculative fiction. Snakes, spiders, jellyfish, scorpions, and even octopuses are venomous.
Here’s a sentence to demonstrate: Unlucky Greg realized he should never have gone camping after falling into a river, making himself sick eating poisonous berries, and then staggering out of his tent and treading on a venomous snake.
Verses vs. Versus
Verses is a noun that refers to two or more stanzas in a poem or song. For example, the crowd at the baseball game was startled when the singer of the National Anthem sang three verses.
Versus is a preposition used to mean as opposed to, against, or as compared to
Used together, you could say, "When I read a children's book of poetry, I prefer it when the verses have regular meter and rhyme versus reading blank verse to a child."
Vice vs.Vise
All over the world, where English is spoken, the word vice is used for the following meanings:
--a moral failing
--crimes involving drugs, pornography, gambling, etc.
--an undesirable habit or personal fault (sometimes trivial)
--deputy, or next in rank (e.g. vice-chair of the committee)
In the United States, the alternate spelling of vise is used to denote a stationary clamping tool composed to two jaws that adjust to hold an object in place
But, just to add to the confusion, that tool is also spelled vice in other parts of the world where English is used. Why the US clings to two different spellings could simply be a vise-like grip on tradition!
Who vs Whom
Unless you are Dr. Seuss or a rock band, "who" is a pronoun referring to a subject. "Whom" is the same pronoun when it is used as an object. In other words, "who" refers to something that is doing something, while "whom" refers to something that is having something done to it.
Here is a nifty little holiday trick to determine when to use whom. Think about Santa Claus. It is correct to say "Who delivers presents on Christmas Eve?" because the answer, "Santa Claus delivers presents on Christmas Eve" has Santa Clause, the noun which "who" replaces, as the one doing the action in the sentence. It is also correct to say "Santa Clause delivered presents to whom?" (setting aside the debatably incorrect placement of a pronoun at the end of a sentence) because the answer "Santa Claus delivered presents to Billy" has Billy, the noun replaced by the pronoun, as the object, the one having something done to him. Santa Claus is still the subject.
Too confusing? Another quick way to test who vs whom is to remember that "whom" is used in the same sentences as "him". You would not say "Him delivered presents," when discussing Santa Claus. Instead you would say "He delivered presents." Who delivered presents? He did. But the answer to the question "To whom did Santa Claus deliver presents" would be "To him." You would never say "Santa Claus delivered presents to he."
Now, when it comes to Dr. Seuss and rock bands, we have the Who that Horton hears, and The Who that concert goers hear. Since these Whos are nouns, not pronouns, all bets are off.
The sentence "Whom did the Who hear and who went with him?" might be very correctly answered with "He heard The Who with Santa Claus who heard The Who with him." But, when would that ever come up?
(Note that "who" and "whom" only apply to humans. Even though many of us think our pets qualify, grammarians do not.)
Whoa vs. Woe
Whoa is used as a command to slow down or stop, especially to a horse. It can also be used as an exclamation to indicate surprise or call attention to oneself.
Woe indicates distress or sorrow, as in "a tale of woe." It can also be used for things that cause such distress or sorrow.
Putting them together: After hearing about only half of the woes of his grandfather's war experiences, the grandson said, "Whoa, Grandad. That's too much for me."
Your, You're, and Yore
Your is the possessive of "you." Just as his and her show that something belongs to him or her, if something is owned by you, I would say it is your belonging.
You're is a contraction--the smashing together of two words: you and are. When we push them together, we take out the "a" in the word are, and put in an apostrophe to show where a letter is missing. If you see the word you're, it always indicates a contraction.
Yore has nothing to do with you It is an Old English word denoting "a long time ago." (It's a word from a long time ago meaning . . . a long tine ago.)_ In modern usage you will usually see the words "days of" preceding it.
So, if your parents can remember the Alamo, you're older than everyone else on Earth, and you, too, can recall days of yore.
Yule vs. You'll
This yuletide you'll likely encounter two of my favorite homonyms. In fact you already have! Though they are pronounced the same, yule and you'll have very different meanings.
The contraction "you'll" is a shortened version of "you will" while "yule" means "Christmas" in olde-timey talk. "Yuletide" just means "Christmas time" essentially. So I could have as easily said "This Christmas time, you will likely encounter two of my favorite homonyms," but where's the fun in that?
You might also hear talk of a Yule Log, which is, well, a log that people traditionally burn in their fireplaces at Christmas time. It's also a tasty Christmas dessert that is shaped like, you guessed it, a log.
So, this yuletide I hope you'll log lots of hours watching the yule log burn, while sharing yule log cake with your friends and family.