Lecture One: Personality
Personality comes from the Greek (by way of Latin) : per + sonare = to speak through the mask.
(Greek actors wore masks on stage to portray characters).
Schacter defines personality as an individual’s characteristic style of behaving, thinking
and feeling. Note how difficult it is to measure the last two qualities.
There are four main classical approaches to the study of personality: biological; psychodynamic;
humanistic-existential; social-cognitive.
Is there a genetic basis to personality?
From the National Institute of Health
Scientists have identified specific genes that correlate with certain tendencies:
DRD4 & DRD2: Variants in these dopamine receptor genes are linked to novelty-seeking and extraversion.
KATNAL2: Associated with conscientiousness, specifically discipline and caution.
MAOA: Linked to introversion and emotional regulation.
PCDH15 & WSCD2: Variants in these genes are associated with sociability.
This class will focus on the neuroscientific approach, which begins
by asking the question: “What is a self?”
A possible answer: The mask that filters our motivations and thoughts is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, that part of the frontal lobe that is active during fully awake periods and also during lucid dreams.
Measuring Personality
A self-report is defined as a questionnaire method in which as person provides subjective
information about his/hers thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
The most common method of personality assessment is the self-report. The self-report scale is
created by collecting sets of self-descriptive statements that indicate different degrees of a
personality characteristic, such as ‘friendliness’.
A good example is the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) (Gosling, Rentfrow & Swann,
2003) Adding up the number of statements the person endorses that indicate ‘friendliness’ and
subtracting those statements that indicate ‘unfriendliness’ will yield a measure of the person’s
self-reported friendliness. Such scales are: (1) overall happiness (Lyubomirsky, 2008); rapid response to insults (Swann & Bentfrow, 2001).
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
This is the premier personality assessment tool; its present form is the MMPI-2-RF.
The MMPI-2-RF consists of 338 self-descriptive statements to which the respondent answers
“true, false, cannot say”.
The MMPI-2-RF measures a wide range of psychological constructs, clinical problems (for
example, antisocial behaviour, thought dysfunction), somatic (body) problems such as head
pains, internalizing problems such as anxiety or self-doubt, externalizing problems (aggression,
substance abuse), and interpersonal problems (family problems, avoidance).
The MMPI-2-RF also includes a validity scale that measures a person’s attitudes towards test-
taking and any tendency to distort the results by faking answers.
The MMPI-2-RF is analyzed based on empirical criterion keying; that means measuring this
individual score against hundreds of thousands of tests in a database. For example, the MMPI-2-
RF scores will measured against incarcerated criminals, and conversely medical professionals.
This approach--measuring against real-world cases--is what gives the MMPI-2-RF its construct
validity. Note: google “define: construct validity” to understand the importance of the term.
Accurate measurement of personality will only occur if people provide accurate responses. Many
people have a tendency to respond in a socially desirable way--demand characteristics--others
have aspects of themselves they know nothing about, they may be inaccurate about past
experiences, or what factors are motivating their behaviour in the present (Wilson, 2009).
Methods Using Technology
Enter internet-age technologies. Are women actually more talkative than men? Wireless
communication, real-time computer analysis and automation lead to surprising findings. Mehl et
al., 2009 reported that 396 university students in the U.S. and Mexico each spent several days
wearing an electronically activated recorder (EAR) and found that both men and woman
averaged 16,000 words a day equally.
Traits as Behavioural Dispositions and Motives
A trait is a relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way. Gordon
Allport (1937) saw traits as pre-existing dispositions, causes of behaviour that reliably trigger
that behaviour. Murray (creator of the TAT) suggested that traits reflect motives. Some of the
traits that have been heavily researched are authoritarianism, cognitive complexity,
defensiveness, sensation seeking, and optimism.
What are the core traits? To identify these, factor analysis is used. Many terms for traits can
be reduced into a small number of underlying dimensions, or factors. To understand factor
analysis, try answering this question: “Which sport is more difficult, hockey or soccer?”
Eysenck’s Hierarchical Structure of Traits
Hans Eysenck, a pioneer in personality psychology, proposed that personality isn't just a random collection of traits, but a structured hierarchy. He argued that our behavior can be organized into four distinct levels, moving from specific one-time actions to broader genetic temperaments.
The Four Levels of Hierarchy
https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_466-1
Eysenck’s model (often referred to as the PEN Model) breaks down as follows:
1. Specific Response Level (The Base)
This is the most basic level. it consists of individual behaviors or thoughts observed in a specific situation.
Example: You see a person introduce themselves to a stranger at a party once. This is a single data point.
2. Habitual Response Level
If a specific response is repeated under similar circumstances, it becomes a habit.
Example: That same person consistently introduces themselves to strangers at every party they attend.
3. Trait Level
At this level, several habitual responses cluster together. These are the "personality traits" we usually talk about (like sociability, impulsivity, or liveliness).
Example: Because this person is talkative, enjoys parties, and likes meeting new people, we label them with the trait of Sociability.
4. Type Level (The Superfactor)
This is the highest level of organization. Eysenck believed that certain traits consistently correlate with one another to form a broad "Type" or Superfactor.
Example: Sociability, impulsivity, activity, and excitability all cluster together to form the Superfactor of Extraversion.
The Big Five Factor Model
Openness to experience High: imaginative; variety;
independent
Low: down-to-earth; routine;
conforming
Conscientiousness High: organized; careful; self-
disciplined
Low: disorganized; careless;
weak-willed
Extraversion High: social; fun-loving;
affectionate
Low: retiring; sober; reserved
Agreeableness High: soft-hearted; trusting;
helpful
Low: ruthless, suspicious;
uncooperative
Neuroticism High: worried; insecure; self-
pitying
Low: calm; secure; self-
satisfied
The Big Five dimensions are so universal that they show up even when people are asked to
evaluate complete strangers (Passini & Norman, 1966). The reality of these traits has been
clearly established: people high in extraversion choose to spend time with other people; people
high in conscientiousness generally perform well at work and live longer; people low in
conscientiousness are more likely than average to be juvenile delinquents. (John & Srivastava,
1999).
Brain and Personality
When someone experiences a profound change in personality, testing often reveals the presence
of brain pathologies such as stroke, brain tumour, or changes consistent with dementia (Feinberg,
2001). The administration of antidepressant medication and other pharmaceutical treatments that
can change brain chemistry can also trigger personality changes, making people somewhat more
extraverted and less neurotic (Bagby et al., 1999)
In one review of studies involving over 24,000 twin pairs, identical twins proved markedly more
similar to each other in personality than did fraternal twins. (Loehlin, 1992). Heritability
coefficents indicate that roughly half of the variability among individuals results from genetic
factors (Bouchard & Loehlin, 2001).
Heritability Estimates for the Big Five Personality Traits
remember: heritability is measured in groups of individuals, not a single individual.
Trait Dimension Heritability
Openness 0.45
Conscientiousness 0.38
Extraversion 0.49
Agreeableness 0.35
Neuroticism 0.41
Source Loehlin, 1992
Gender Differences in Personality
Examples: Males are more physically aggressive than females, but females engage in more
relational aggression than do males, even from a very young age (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).
On the Big Five, studies across dozens of cultures around the world show that women are higher
on neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; in terms of openness,
women report more to feelings and men to ideas. (Schmitt et al., 2008). Overall, however men
and women are far more similar in personality than they are different. (Hyde, 2005).
Genetics and Personality
Can genetics predict specific behaviours? Martin et al., 1986 examined 3000 pairs of identical
and fraternal twins and found genetic evidence for transmission of conservative views on
socialism, church authority, the death penalty, and mixed-race marriage. A set of interacting
genes is the likely culprit.
Hatemi et al, 211 reported that after examining the DNA of 13,000 people found associations
between conservative/liberal and the chromosomal regions linked to mental flexibility.
Are traits hard-wired in our brains? Hans Eysenck suggested that extraverts pursue stimulation
because their reticular formation is not easily aroused. To feel greater cortical arousal, extraverts
seek out more social interaction. In contrast, introverts prefer quiet activities like reading because
their cortex is more easily stimulated to optimal arousal.
It boils down to concentration. Extraverts tend to perform well at tasks that are done in a noisy,
arousing context, whereas introverts are better at tasks that require concentration in tranquil
contexts.
Jeffrey Grey proposed the dimensions of extraversion-introversion and neuroticism reflect two
basic brain systems: (1) a behavioral activation system; (2) a behavioral inhibition system.
Studies of brain electrical activity (quantitatve EEG) and functional brain imaging (fMRI) that
the individual differences in activation and inhibition arise from the interaction of these two
systems. (DeYoung & Grey, 2009).
Also, the volume of a brain region may correlate to the particular self-reported personality trait.
For instance, self-reported neuroticism is correlated with brain regions involved with sensitivity
to threat. (DeYoung et al., 2010)
The primary brain region that correlates to, and is responsible for, sensitivity to threat is
amygdala. It functions as a "neural watchdog" within the limbic system, acting as an alarm system that detects danger and triggers automatic, physiological "fight-or-flight" responses.
Here is a breakdown of the brain regions associated with threat sensitivity:
Amygdala: Known for automatic, pre-attentive, and rapid processing of threat, the amygdala (specifically the central nucleus) shows increased activation in response to threatening faces, images, and situations. It is highly reactive in individuals with high trait anxiety and anxiety disorders.
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BNST): While the amygdala handles immediate, acute danger, the BNST is heavily involved in mediating responses to sustained or uncertain threats (anxiety). It is often referred to as part of the "extended amygdala".
Insular Cortex: This region is involved in monitoring internal bodily states and is hyper-responsive to aversive or threatening stimuli, often in conjunction with the amygdala.
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC): The mPFC, particularly the ventral portion (vmPFC), acts as a regulator of the amygdala. Sensitivity to threat is often characterized by an imbalance—excessive activity in the amygdala and insufficient, top-down inhibition from the mPFC.
National Institute of Health
Self-Concept in the Brain
Self-relevance occurs when those traits people use to judge themselves stick in memory. When
people make judgments of themselves on traits, they later recall these traits better than when they
judge other people on the same traits. (Rogers, Kuiper & Kirker, 1977).
In studies of the this effect of self-relevance on memory, researchers using brain imaging
techniques have found that the simple activity of making judgments about the trait self-concept is
accompanied by the activation of the medial prefrontal cortex.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the extent to which an individual likes, values or accepts the self. Rosenberg's
Self-Esteem Scale is another self-report focused on an individual's self-esteem. What is
problematic about self-esteem is self-serving bias, that is, people tend to take credit for their
successes, but downplay responsibility for their failures. (Shepperd, Malone & Sweeney, 2008)
Key Brain Regions Correlating to Self-Esteem
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC): Often cited as the primary hub for self-referential processing. High self-esteem is specifically linked to stronger white matter connections between the mPFC and the ventral striatum, which is the brain's reward center.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC): This region is critical for emotional regulation and social evaluation. In individuals with low self-esteem, the ventral ACC shows heightened sensitivity to social feedback (e.g., being liked or disliked).
Default Mode Network (DMN): Self-esteem levels are structurally and functionally associated with the DMN, a network active during resting states and internal reflection. Key components include:
Precuneus: Acts as a "gateway" for translating social reputation into a momentary sense of self-worth (state self-esteem).
Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC): Linked to autobiographical memory and personal relevance.
Right Temporoparietal Junction (rTPJ): Gray matter volume in this region positively correlates with self-esteem; it is involved in "theory of mind" (understanding others' perspectives) and the experience of pride.
Hippocampus: Higher gray matter volume in the hippocampus has been linked to higher self-esteem, potentially serving as a buffer against stress.
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (dlPFC): Increased activity here is often associated with the cognitive control of negative emotions. Conversely, lower self-esteem is sometimes linked to greater dlPFC activation during self-critical thinking.
Lecture Two: Stress and Health
From the National Institute of Health
Can a mother's stress affect her unborn child?
Elevated prenatal maternal cortisol, driven by stress,
High levels in early pregnancy are linked to reduced cognitive scores, while third-trimester spikes may alter amygdala connectivity and affect later internalizing behaviors, often with sex-specific effects.
Key Effects of Cortisol on Fetal Brain Development
Amygdala and Emotional Regulation: High prenatal cortisol is associated with changes in the amygdala, a brain region crucial for processing emotions. Studies indicate this can lead to stronger amygdala connectivity in females (linked to internalizing behaviors) and larger amygdala volume, potentially increasing emotional and behavioral risks in childhood.
Cognitive Development: Elevated cortisol in early gestation (first trimester) is associated with lower mental development scores at 12 months. Higher levels in late pregnancy have been linked to lower verbal IQ at age 7, according to studies from the National Institutes of Health.
Brain Structure Changes: High cortisol levels in the third trimester have been associated with increased cortical thickness in certain, primarily frontal, regions of the brain, suggesting a structural, though not always harmful, alteration in brain growth.
Timing Matters: The impact of cortisol is highly dependent on when it occurs during pregnancy. Early, high levels of maternal cortisol are often more detrimental than later, moderate increases.
Neurotoxic Potential: While necessary for development, extreme elevations of cortisol—similar to high, chronic stress—may have neurotoxic effects on the developing fetus.
Protective Mechanisms: Normally, the placenta acts as a barrier, using enzymes to break down maternal cortisol. Stress, however, can impair this, allowing higher levels of cortisol to reach the fetus.
Theories of Stress
Schacter's definition of stressors is too negative, and ignores much of Han's Selye's original definition.
from https://www.stress.org/what is stress?
The term “stress”, as it is currently used was coined by Hans Selye in 1936, who defined it as “the non
specific response of the body to any demand for change”. Selye had noted in numerous experiments
that laboratory animals subjected to acute but different noxious physical and emotional stimuli (blaring
light, deafening noise, extremes of heat or cold, perpetual frustration) all exhibited the same pathologic
changes of stomach ulcerations, shrinkage of lymphoid tissue and enlargement of the adrenals.
He later demonstrated that persistent stress could cause these animals to develop various diseases similar to those seen in humans, such as heart attacks, stroke, kidney disease and rheumatoid arthritis.
In Selye's definition, falling into mad, romantic love can be defined as a stressor, a specific event that
places demands on a person, and can threaten their wellbeing. Just ask Shakespeare's 'Romeo and
Juliet'.
Chronic stressors fall into a different category, they are sources of stress that occur continuously or
repeatedly. Examples are: strained relationships; discrimination based on race, gender or sexual
orientation; bullying; overwork; money troubles. These are small stressors that may be easy to ignore if
they happen only occasionally, but can accumulate to what Selye categorizes as distress.
People who experience such daily hassles also report more psychological symptoms. (La Pierre et al.,
2012). and physical symptoms (Piazza et al., 2013).
Chronic stressors can also be linked to particular environments. For example, features of city life
noise, traffic, crowding, pollution, and even the threat of violenceprovide particularly insistent sources
of chronic stress. (Evan, 2006).
In one study of the influence of noise on children looked at the impact of attending schools under the
flight path to Heathrow Airport in London, England. Did the noise of more than 1250 jets flying
overhead each day have an influence on children's behavior? Compared with children from matched
control schools in lownoise areas, children going to school in the flight path reported higher levels of
noise annoyance and showed poorer reading comprehension. (Haines et al., 2001).
Stressors challenge you to do something. Glass & Singer, (1972) looked at the aftereffects of loud noise in people who could not control it. Participants were asked to solve puzzles or proofread in a quiet room, or in a room filled with loud noise.
Glass & Singer found that bursts of such noise hurt performance on the tasks after the noise was over. However, dramatic decline in performance was prevented among participants who were told that during the noise period, they could stop the noise just by pressing a button. They did not actually have this option, but access to the 'panic button' shielded them from the detrimental effects of the noise.
Subsequent studies have found that lack of perceived control underlies other responses to stressors as
well, such as the stressful effects of crowding. (Evans & Stecker, 2004).Stressful Events
The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2011 were an enormous stressor that
had a lasting effect on many people, both physically and psychologically. People living close to the
World Trade Center (within 2.4 km) during 9/11 were found to have less grey matter in the amygdala,
hippocampus, insula, anterior cingulate, and medial prefrontal cortex relative to those living more than 322 km away during the attacks, suggesting this stressful event reduced the size of those parts of the brain that play an important role in emotion, memory and decision making. (Ganzel et al., 2008)
People around the U.S. who had a stronger acute stress response to the events of 9/11 had a 53%
increase incidence of heart problems over the next 3 years. (Holman et al., 2008).
Fight-or-Flight Response
Walter Cannon coined this phrase to describe the body's response to any threatening stimulus; it is an
emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action. It is a
common response across species. It is a threestage physiological stress response that appears
regardless of the stressor that is encountered.
Brain activation in response to threat occurs in the hypothalamus, stimulating the nearby pituitary
gland, which in turn releases a hormone known as ACTH. ACTH travels through the bloodstream and
stimulates the adrenal glands atop the kidneys. In this cascading response of the HPA (hypothalamic
pituitaryadrenocortical) axis, the adrenal glands are stimulated to release hormones, including the
catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) which increase sympathetic nervous system
activation and therefore increase heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate. The increase
respiration and blood pressure make more oxygen available to the muscles to energize attack or intiate
escape. The adrenal glands also release cortisol, a hormone that increases the concentration of
glucose in the blood to make fuel available to the muscles.
General Adaptation Syndrome
The general adaptation syndrome (GAS)was termed by Hans Selye in the 1930s, when he undertook a variety of experiments that looked at the physiological consequences of severe threats to well-being.
The three phases of the GAS are:
(1) Alarm phase, in which the body rapidly mobilizes its resources in response to threat. Energy is
required, and the body calls on its stored fat and muscle. The alarm phase is equivalent to Cannon's
fightorflight response;
(2) In the resistance phase, the body adapts to its high state of arousal as it tries to cope with the
stressor. Continuing to draw on resources of fat and muscle, it shuts down unnecessary processes, such
as digestion, growth, sex drive, menstruation, production of testosterone & sperm;
(3) In the exhaustion phase, the body's resistance collapses.
Many of the resistance-phase defenses create gradual damage as they operate, leading to costs for the body than can include susceptibility to infection, tumor grouth, aging, irreversible organ damage, or death.People exposed to chronic stress, whether due to their relationships, job or something else, experience actual wear and tear on their bodies and increased aging.
What is the aging process?
The cells in our bodies are constantly dividing, as part of this process, our
chromosomes are repeatedly copied so that our genetic information is carried into the new cells. The
process is facilitated by the presence of telomeres,
To use an analogy, they are like the tape at the end
of your shoelaces that keeps the laces from fraying. Each time the cell divides, the telomeres become
slightly shorter. If they become too short, cells can no longer divide and this can lead to the
development of tumors and a range of diseases.
Our bodies fix this with an enzyme called telomerase,which rebuilds those telomeres at the end of our chromosomes. Ultimately, telomerase cannot keep up telomere production at a sufficient pace, and over time cells lose their ability to divided. This is the cause of aging and cell death This is not apoptosis, because it is not programmed cell death.
Social stressors can play an important role in the process of telomere maintenance. People exposed to
chronic stress have shorter telomere length and lower telomerase activity (Epel et. al, 2004).
Laboratory studies suggest that cortisol can reduce the activity of telomerase, which in turn leads to shortened telemere, causing a cascade effect in the form of accelerated aging and increased risk of a wide range of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and depression (Blackburn & Epel, 2012).
In 2024, research involving Stanford scientists (published in late 2023 and discussed in 2024) discovered that gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) can potentially increase telomerase activity and decelerate telomere shortening in human cells. The implications are vast; for example, a 20-year-old undergoing this treatment might age only a single year in twenty.
Stress Effects On The Immune Response
The immune system is a complex that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
substances. The system includes white blood cells, such as lymphocytes (including T cells and B cells)
that produce antibodies that fight infection. Note: microglia are specialized lymphocytes.
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables,
such as the presence of stressors. Stressors can cause hormones like the glucocorticoids to flood the
brain, wearing down the immune system amd making it less effective.
Marucha, KiecoltGlaser, & Favagehi (1998) had medical student volunteers receive small wounds on
the roofs of their mouths. Researchers observed that thse wounds healed more slowly during exam
periods than during summer vacation.
In another study, healthy volunteers permitted researchers to swab the common cold virus in their
noses. (Cohen et al., 1998) Some people got colds and others did not, and stress helped account for the
difference. Volunteers who experienced constant stressors (lasting a month or longer) were especially
likely to suffer colds, in particular, those who had lost jobs, or were going through extended
interpersonal problems.
Stress and Cardiovascular Health.
The main cause of coronary heart disease is atherosclerosis a gradual narrowing of the arteries that
occurs as fatty deposits, or plaque, build up on the inner walls of the arteries. Chronic stress can be a
major contributor (Kranz & McCeney, 2002). As a result of stressactivated arousal of the sympathetic
nervous system, blood pressure goes up and stays up, gradually damaging the blood vessels. The
damaged vessels accumulate plaque, increasing the likelihood of coronary heart disease. Everson et al.,
(1997) reported that Finnish men age 42 to 60 exhibited elevated blood pressure in response to stress,
and they reported that their work environment was especially stressful, showed progressive
atherosclerosis of a major artery in the neck during the 4year study.
Friedman & Rosenman (1974) interviewed and tested 3000 healthy middle-aged men and then tracked
their subsequent cardiovascular health. They developed the concept of the Type A behavior pattern,
which is characterized by a tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time
urgency, and competitive acheivement strivings. The researchers found that of the 258 men who had
heart attacks in the 9 years following the interviews, over two thirds had been classified as Type A and
only one third had been classified as easygoing Type B.
Stress Interpretation: Psychological Reactions
The interpretation of a stimulus as distressful or eustressful (to use Selye's terms) is called primary
appraisal. (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The next step is secondary appraisal, determining whether the
stressor is something that you can handle or note; whether you have control over the event. (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). Our bodies react differently if the stressor is perceived as a threat (distress) or a
challenge (eustress). (Blascovich & Tamaka, 1996). Although both threats and challenges raise heart
rate, threast increase vascular reactivity such as the constriction of blood vessels, which can lead to
hight blood pressure. In one study. researchers found that even interactions as innocuous as
conversations can produce threat or challenge responses depending on the race of the conversation
partner. (Mendes et al., 2002).
Burnout
Burnout is a state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion created by longterm involvement in an
emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation. Burnout is
a particular problem in the helping professions (Maslach, Schaufelt & Leiter, 2001). Teachers, nurses,
clergy, doctors, dentists, psychologists, social workers, and police officers. This is likely because they
encounter emotional turmoil on the job, and can only work productively for a limited time. Symptoms
of burnout are: overwhelming exhaustion; a deep cynicism; detachment from one's work; a sense of
ineffectiveness; lack of accomplishment. (Maslach, 2003). Burnout also has physiological qualities.
Schacter has omitted this, and it needs to be addressed. It is known as adrenal fatigue.Adrenal Fatigue
is a stressrelated condition that results in symptoms like exhaustion, weakened immunity, sleep
disturbances, and food cravings. The adrenal glands and HPA (hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal) axis
become depleted and dysregulated after a long period of emotional stress or chronic illness.
( https://adrenalfatiguesolution.com/adrenalfatiguesymptoms ).
Stress Management
Controlling one's thoughts is not easy, but it is possible to banish unpleasant thoughts from the mind.
This style of dealing with stress is known as repressive coping, or avoiding situations or thoughts that
are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint. (Barnier, Levin & Maher,
2004). When repressors suffer a heart attack, they are less likely than other people to report intrusive
thoughts of their heart problems. (Ginzburg, Solomon,& Bleich, 2002). Many victims of rape not only
avoid the place where the rape occurred, but may move away from their home or neighborhood. (Ellis,
1983). For some people, the avoidance of unpleasant thoughts and situations is so difficult that it can
turn into a grim preoccupation (Parker & McNally, 2008).
Rational coping is the process of facing a stressor and working to overcome it. It is the opposite of
repressive coping. It is a threestep process: acceptance of the reality of the stressor; exposure, or
attending to the stressor such as thinking about it and even seeking it out; understanding, working to
find the meaning of the stressor in your life. For example, using a technique called prolonged exposure
rape survivors relive the traumatic events in their imagination by recording a verbal account of the event and then listening to the recording daily.
In one study, rape survivors were instructed to seek out objectively safe situations that caused them
anxiety or that they had avoided. This method produces significant reductions in anxiety and symptoms
of posttraumatic stress disorder compared to no therapy and compared to therapies that promote more
gradual and subtle forms of exposure. (Foa et al., 1999).
Reframing involves finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat.
Stress inoculation training (SIT) is a reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful
situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation. Subsequent research on SIT had
revealed that it can be useful, too, for helping people who have suffered prior traumatic events to
become more comfortable living with those events (Foa & Meadows, 1997). Pennebaker (1989)
reported that the physical health of university students improved after they spent a few hours writing
about selfdisclosure (one's deepest thoughts and feelings). They were then less likely to vist the
student health center, used less aspirin and acheived better grades. Engaging in such expressive writing
was found to improve immune function, whereas suppressing emotional topics weakend it (Petrie,
Booth, & Pennebaker, 1988).
Meditation is the practice of intentional contemplation. It appears to have positive psychological
effects (Holzel et al., 2011) Mindfulness meditation teaches one how to remain focused on, and
accepting of, immediate experience. Experienced meditators how deactivation in the default mode
network (which is associated with mind wandering). Even short-term meditation training has been
shown to improve the connectivity between parts of the brain involved in conflict monitoring, cognitive
and emotional control , doing so by increased myelinization.(perhaps due to increased neuron firing).
Relaxation therapy is based on electromyography, used to measure subtle activity of muscles.
The most important ones (for psychology) are involved in subvocalization.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocalization. This links back to meditation, which includes the
relaxation response, a condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing, and
blood pressure. (Benson, 1990).
Aerobic Exercise
Aerobic exercise increases heart rate and oxygen uptake for a sustained period, and is associated with
psychological well-being. It actually does promote stress relief and happiness. One recent meta
analysis (a quantitative review of existing studies) compiled data from 90 studies including over 10,000
people with chronic illnesses who were randomly assigned to the aerobic exercise condition
experienced a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. (Herring et al., 2010). This appears also to
work for schizophrenia ((Gorczynski & Faulkner, 2011).
Situation Management
Social support is aid gained through interacting with others. To be socially disconnected is bad for
your health. Single individuals have an elevated risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer,
pneumonia and influenza, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, liver disease and cirrhosis. (Johnson,
Backlund, et al., 2000). Good ongoing relationships can be as healthy as exercising and avoiding
smoking. (Umberson et al., 2006). Lonely people are more likely than others to be stressed and
depressed (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and they can be more susceptible to illness because of lower
thannormal levels of immune functioning. (KiecoltGlaser et al., 1984).
Gender differences in social support have come to light partly because the flightorfight response to
stress may be largely a male reaction (Taylor, 2002). She suggested that the female response to stress is
to tend and befriend. Like men, women respond to stressors with sympathetic nervous system arousal
and the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, but they also release oxytocin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland in pregnant and nursing mothers. In the presence of estrogen, oxytocin triggers social responses, a tendency to seek out social contacts, nurture others, create and maintain cooperative groups.
Religious experiences Why do people who endorse religiosity or spirituality have better mental and
physical health? Some hypotheses: engagement in religious or spiritual practices, such as attendance at
weekly religious services, may lead to the development of strong and more extensive social networks,
which have well-known health benefits. Following the recommendations of spiritual teachers with
respect to dietary restrictions, restraining from the use of recreational drugs and alcohol, and having a
more optimistic perspective on daily life events. All of these can lead to more positive healthy
outcomes. (Seeman, Dubin, & Seeman, 2003).
Sickness Response. Misery is part of the sickness response, a coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to
illness organized by the brain. (Watkins & Maier, 2005). Feeling sick makes you withdraw from activity and lie still, conserving the energy for fighting the illness. Appetite loss is similarly helpful, as the energy spent on digestion is conserved. Therefore, these behavioral changes are not random side effects, but an evolutionary strategy. As we age, the sickness response becomes more prolonged. (Barrientos et al., 2009).
Research identifies the dorsal vagal complex in the brainstem, specifically the Nucleus Tractus Solitarius (NTS) and Area Postrema (AP), as the primary "alert centre" and hub for coordinating the sickness response. National Institute of Health
The immune response to an infection begins with the activation of white blood cells that engulf
microbes and also release cytokines, proteins that circulate throughout the body and communicate with
other white blood cells, also communicating the sickness response to the brain. (Maier & Watkins,
1998). Cytokines do not enter the brain, instead they activate the vagus nerve that runs from the
intestines, stomach and chest to the brain, inducing the 'I am infected' message. (Goehler et al., 2000)
In humans, the connection between the sickness response, immune reaction, and stress is illustrated in
depression. In addition to fatigue and malaise, depressed people show signs characteristic of infection,
including high levels of cytokines circulating in the blood. (Maes, 1995).
When do we know we are sick? fMRI scans of brain activation in high and lowpain sensitive
individuals during painful stimulation show that the anterior cingulate cortex and the primary
somatosensory areas show greater activation in highpainsensitive individuals. (Coghill, McHaffie &
Yen, 2003)
Placebo effects fMRI scans reveal that some brain regions normally activated when when individuals
report pain in response to shocks are deactivated when those individuals are given a placebo analgesic
during the shock. The regions include the anterior cingulate cortex in the right medial view of the
brain, and the insula and thalamus in the ventral view of the brain (Wager et al., 2004). The effect is
most marked when the patient knows that a treatment is taking place.(StewartWilliams, 2004).
Knowledge effects can be remarkably specific, mirroring in detail what patients believe about the
nature of medicine, for example, that two pills work better than one, and that an injection is better than
a pill. (de Craen et al., 1999)
Somatic Symptom Disorders A psychosomatic illness is an interaction between mind and body that
can produce illness. A full-blown disorder occurs when a person with at least one bodily symptom
displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about their symptoms,
and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns.
Sick Role is a socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness. (Parsons, 1975). The
sick role also incurs obligations: they cannot appear to enjoy the illness or reveal signs of wanting to be
sick and must also take care to pursue treatment to end this 'undesirable' condition. This becomes a
psychological disorder when it reaches the stage of malingering Because many symptoms of illness
cannot be faked (even facial expressions of pain are difficult to simulate) malingering is possible only
with a restricted number of illnesses. Malingering can be difficult to diagnose and treat, because, for
example, in the case of anorexia nervosa, the symptoms can be appear to be fake, but are not. (Feldman, 2004).