Working Title: The Ethnomathematics of Vietnamese Algorithms

Daniel C. Orey & Kieu T. Nguyen

California State University, Sacramento

This paper represents the second in an ongoing series of research findings related to the Algorithm Collection Project at California State University, Sacramento. It is the goal of this paper to outline the mathematics education of children from Vietnam. As well, we outline what we have found as a unique difference in the instruction in mathematics that allows many Vietnamese, and Vietnamese-American students to be successful in math as compared to their non-Vietnamese peers. This discussion briefly reviews the educational system in Vietnam and offers a contrast in the way mathematics is approached in Vietnam and in California. Included as well, in this work is an outline of algorithms that are used by recently arrived Vietnamese immigrants.

Historical Background

Many foreign countries have influenced the Vietnamese educational system, with the Chinese and the French making the greatest impact of all in the shaping of the current academic structure in Vietnam. Initially, Vietnam adapted a model rooted in the Chinese schooling based on Confucian philosophy, emphasizing educational attainments and ritual performance. During the time as colonizers of French Indochina, which included current Vietnam, the French laid a foundation for the current structure of the Vietnamese education system by developing a system from preschool education to higher education common to France and other former French colonies. At this time elementary schools consisted of only one or two grades of primary education. Whereas, the Chinese were selective in who was educated, it was during this period the overall system expanded to allow a broader range of the population to attend school.

The Vietnamese educational system of the French Indochinese colonial era ended when North Vietnam became an independent nation in 1954. Nevertheless, the French influence in the current Vietnamese school system is still evident. In what was once called North Vietnam, there were two educational systems: the old one, which is similar to the French twelve year system, and the new one consisting of a nine year system (Sloper & Can, 1995). Prior to the end of the Vietnam War, South Vietnam was controlled by the Saigon regime where the education system remained the same as the French system. After the war, and in order to effectively unify both the North and South, the two school systems were merged and became a new ten-year system. In 1975, a twelve-year education system was put into place due to a major educational reform, and all children began school at the age of six. The structure of the educational system in Vietnam today can be summarized as follows (Do, 2003):

Primary school: Children from 6 years of age are admitted to this level and their age is calculated according to the year of birth. Grade 1 is the first grade of primary education, which includes grades 1 – 5.

Junior secondary schools: Children from the age of 11, consists of three years (grades 6 – 9).

Senior secondary schools: Children from the age of 15 and consists of three grades (grades 10-12).

Higher education: (college, universities and postgraduate education): Course of study is 3 years for college, 4 to 6 years for universities. To receive a MA degree, an individual needs to have graduated from a university; the study is 2 years. For a Doctoral degree, the study is 3 – 4 years or more.

The universalization of primary education in Vietnam was a major policy of the Vietnamese State throughout the past 50 years. However, it was in 1989, that the Vietnamese government publicized the law on the universalization of primary education which emphasized the state’s commitment to a required and free primary education for all children in the country. In this plan, there are two main types of schools:

(1) state schools organized by the state (98 % of the pupils attend these schools) and

(2) private schools which are organized and managed by individuals (Do, 2003). In both systems, students are given instruction under a strict environment.

Both Do (2003) and Phung (2003) have described that in Vietnam, the majority of teachers use a very rigid or standardized teaching style as compared to that common in the United States. Concepts are taught first, followed by a great deal of practice with less emphasis on context. The teacher spends 99% of class time using highly structured lessons used to complete daily objectives. Often learning is accomplished through the use of homework.

In the primary classroom, students are seated in rows. Typically the mathematics lesson time consists of 90% of whole class teaching when the teacher places emphasis on the explanation of illustrated methods to the whole class; 8% is devoted to individual work and 2% to group work (Do, 2003). During each math lesson, pupils take turns at working at the board in front of the entire class. Students’ mistakes are usually dealt with individually. Basic operations like addition and multiplication facts are learned by heart. Students are required to solve basic algorithms through the use of mental math strategies which we will attempt to explain later in this discussion.

Assessment

Students in Vietnam must pass a comprehensive examination prior to entering junior secondary, senior secondary and university. In addition, at the end of each grade level the students are administers end of the year tests and must score at least 70 percent to move to the next grade. The first major exam is at the end of primary school, which is year three (age 9). It is a comprehensive test that covers the first three years of schooling in the subjects of mathematics and Vietnamese. The next exam comes at the end of year five when students are in grade 9. This examination covers six subjects, and is concerned with the mastery of material from grades 6 to 9. When students complete grade 12, they take a required comprehensive examination including all materials covered in grades 10 to12. Once students pass this test, they are granted a “Certificate of Lower Secondary School”. This is equivalent to a high school diploma in the United States. If students wish to pursue higher education, then they must take either a National Examination to attend college or the Entrance Examination for the National University of Hanoi. Both tests are usually taken by the age of 18.

Vietnamese immigrants tell us that it appears that the content of the Vietnamese Educational system is more rigorous than that found in the United States. Vietnamese schools do not allow every student to pass and move on to the next grade level unless they can demonstrate mastery of the material. The problem is that a great number of students drop-out before entering high school. Those who live in rural areas are less likely to finish sixth grade because of poverty and access to schools, despite the overwhelming aspect of Vietnamese culture which values those who are educated. Educated people are to be well-respected as they have proven to the population that they have demonstrated the ability to succeed and overcome an extensive and rigorous schooling experience. Related to this is another important aspect of the Vietnamese school system; students study extremely hard and are respectful of their teachers.

The factors that have been outlined above contribute toward success in Vietnamese children in math (i.e. mental calculation, hard study, and the overwhelming value placed-on education). It appears from our research, that the Vietnamese education system does not make it possible for every student to be successful, only the “smart and quick” kids are able to take advantage or overcoming the system. As for the poor, or those who need some form of extra assistance, these students are left behind and drop out of school.

Calculation and Algorithms

The cultural aspects of schooling and language as described above indicate to us that the process of learning mathematics in Vietnam is different from that found in the United States. We would like to turn now to descriptions of the use of traditional Vietnamese algorithms.

In the United States, when working through an algorithm problem, one is taught to (and the majority of people continue to) write out most every step of the procedure on paper. “Show your work” is a common refrain in many classrooms in the United States, with the outcome of showing your work continuing on throughout adult life in most extensive calculations made without a calculator. However, solving basic math operations requires Vietnamese students to rely upon mental calculation. Adults encourage students not to write every single number on the paper, but to rely upon mental calculation instead.

Let us look at some of the examples of the process by which Vietnamese students solve the basic algorithm of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division compared to the method commonly found in the United States.

ADDITION:

Vietnamese’s Method United States Method

1 1

2 8 7 2 8 7

+ 4 7 3 + 4 7 3

7 6 0 7 6 0

The process of solving a multi-digit addition problem in Vietnam, as in the United States starts out by adding the ones column. 7 added to 3 gives you 10. Then one puts a 0 in the ones column underneath the line and it is not required to carry the one over the tens column, as in the United States. Repeating this process in the 10’s column, one mentally adds 8 + 7 and then adds the 1 that was carried over from the ones column, which gives 6. Finally move to the hundreds column and again mentally add 2 + 4 plus 1 (carried over from the tens column) to get 7. Notice that the carrying over is not written down. Students are taught to remember that a number was carried over to the next column and was added in when calculating the other numbers mentally.

SUBTRACTION:

8 6 1 (d)

(d) 6 (c) 6