Fungi and Beverages
Introduction
Although there is a distinction between beer, wine and liquor as well as other lesser known alcoholic beverages, they share one thing in common. They are the fermentation products of yeasts, mostly Saccharomyces cerevisiae or in the case of beers, usually S. carlsburgiensis. Yeasts, as you recall, are not mycelial. They are unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding or fission. The reaction by which alcoholic beverages are produced is generally referred to as fermentation and may be summarized as:
Yeast + Glucose → Alcohol (Ethanol) + CO2
This reaction is also important in baking bread, but the desired product is then the carbon dioxide rather than alcohol. The production of alcohol occurs best in the absence of oxygen. However, from the yeast's point of view, alcohol and carbon dioxide are waste products, and as the yeast continues to grow and metabolize in the sugar solution, the accumulation of alcohol will become toxic when it reaches a concentration between 14-18%, thereby killing the yeast cells. However, in the case of commercial beers, the alcohol content range is usually much lower, between 3.5-7%. For beverages higher concentrations of alcohol, e.g. liquor, the fermented products must be distilled.
What's the Difference Between Beer and Wine?
Generally, beverages derived from fermented fruit juice is wine. However, commercially speaking, "wine" is fermented grape juice from Vitis vinifera. Other wines are specifically referred to by the name of the fruit of the juices from which they are fermented. For example, elderberry wine, peach wine, etc. Beer on the other hand is usually derived from fermentation of malt derived from the digestion of germinated barley grains, in western cultures, but other grains may be utilized in other cultures. There is also a difference between processes by which wines and beers are fermented.
I have this perception, and I have been told by that I am wrong in this opinion, as to the people that drink beer and the ones that drink wine. Beer drinkers seem to be "blue-collar." When you get together with friends after you played a softball game or football game, there is usually lots of beer. When you go to professional baseball and football games, beer is the beverage most often purchased, not wine. Wine, on the other hand, is a beverage consumed in expensive restaurants, at formal dinners, social affairs, etc. People that drink only wine seem to be the "white-collar people.
However, if we compare beer and wine making processes, you might have just the opposite impression. Beer making is a science and making wine is more of an art. Compared to wine making, making beer is rather complex and a reason can be given for everything that is done in making beer. Wine making, on the other hand, is relatively simple. It's truly a natural drink and its origin probably preceded beer making. Anyone can do it. Not that this means that everybody can make wine that is "drinkable." The yeast responsible for fermenting the sugars in the fruits are usually present in the grape skins, and fermentation will occur whenever there is a break in the skin (take a deep breath the next time you go hiking and pass a bunch of guava fruits that have fallen to the ground). So when human production of wine began, it involved collecting fruits, crushing them and allowing them to ferment, a much simpler process than making beer.
History of Beer (Hall; Meussdoerffen,2009)
The making of beer has become a popular hobby and many people now brew beer in their homes. The necessary ingredients and a recipe for beer making can be found in the following YouTube video.
In addition, knowing the modern process of beer making will help you appreciate how beer making has evolved in the many thousands of years since its origin.
Some historians believed that beer may have existed before the dawn of civilization while the human species was still made up of numerous nomadic tribes. However, most believed that it came about early in various civilizations. The manufacturing of beer is more complex than wine and it has been mastered by many cultures in different ways. The ancient Mesopotamians and Sumerians were believed to have been brewing beer as early as 10,000 BC. However, in Babylonia, clay tablets with a recipe for beer, from approximately the year 6,000 B.C., is the earliest documented evidence of beer making. This recipe utilized under baked bread made from germinated barley. Being under baked, the bread served as a live yeast culture and when the bread was cut into small pieces and placed in a large jug with water, malt, which consists mostly of the sugar maltose, would be produced. The preinoculated malt when left out would be fermented by yeast to give you beer. Although crude, the "common" people considered this beverage ready to drink. However, more could be done, such as filtering the beverage in order to remove the bread and other particulate matter and dates, herbs and honey could also be added for flavoring. Note that early beer did not include hops in their recipe, which would not be included until centuries later. Although the recipe for this early beer is far different than today’s bottled varieties, it is still recognizable as beer. Other cultures also had/have variations in their recipes for brewing beer.
In ancient China rice was used to make a wheat beer. In pre-Columbian civilizations, in the Americas, corn was the grain used instead of barley and, the digestion of starch to sugar was carried out by chewing the corn before placing it in the fermentation tank. The saliva in the mouths contains amylase enzyme that converted the corn starch to sugar and gave their beer its improved and distinct flavor. In Japan, rice is fermented to make rice wine or Sake. However, that is an incorrect designation since it is a grain that is fermented to make the beverage, In Russia and other Eastern European countries, a beer called kvass was made by adding pieces of stale, black bread to malt, flour, sugar and water, and allowing this mixture to ferment (Fallon, 2000). This resulted in a concoction that was only 1-2% alcohol, but to this day continues to be the most popular beverage in Russia. However, because kvass is so similar to in taste as sodas drinks in the United States, the introduction of Coca Cola has managed to displace kvass in some Eastern European countries, following the fall of the USSR. Coca Cola has attempted to market their own version of kvass in Russia. Kvass can readily be made at home. A recipe for kvass as well as its history can be downloaded here. This beverage is said to be beneficial to health.
In the early history of brewing beer, many cultures, considered it to be woman's work, along with the production of other edible product such as butter and cheese. In fact, the origin of beer in many cultures is attributed to women. The Sumerians to Nikasi and Babylonians to Siris, both goddesses of beer, and in Rome beer was dedicated to Ceres who was the Goddess of the Corn and their name for beer was cerevisia, which is the derivation for the specific epithet for brewer's yeast S. cerevisiae. Since women were considered closer to the corn goddess, they were made the priestesses of these goddesses, as well as the home brewers in various cultures. In all cases beer was considered a heavenly gift. The Norse believed their beer was the drink of Vahalla, their heaven for those who died in battle and in China beer was simply a gift from heaven.
In Western culture, during the Middle Ages, brewing was a household art in which every girl was instructed, along with baking, since both involved the same ingredients and mysteries. Beer was considered "liquid bread" and a meal would consist of beer, bread and cheese. The role of women and beer would continue until the Middle Ages, when monasteries began to make beer, and brewing then became a male dominated process. It was also at this time that hops was introduced into the process of beer making, which served as a flavoring, but more importantly, a preservative, which gave beer a longer shelf life. Although early beer was not necessarily very tasteful, one reason why beer was adopted as the beverage of choice, in many early cultures, was because water was often of poor quality and contaminated. The Roman armies carried beer with them as they journeyed to conquer distant lands in order to avoid becoming ill in foreign lands. When an area was conquered, Roman yeast was introduced by using the wort from previous batches of beer to ensure that they would have a decent drink. Skipping ahead in time, Bohemia, historical region and former kingdom of present-day western Czech Republic, had established state breweries, in 1256, in the town of Budweis, and by 1384, Pilsen's breweries were under the control of Charles IV (Holy Emperor of Rome, 1316-78). Beer also had impact on languages. In Germany, if the local beer went bad, beer would be imported from another town and sold at cost in the basement of city hall - the ratskeller: Literally council basement. Today, a ratskeller is a restaurant or tavern, usually below street level, that features the serving of beer. A custom of medieval marriages, in England, had the bride's family brew a special "bride's ale", for the bride. The bride's ale eventually became the present wedding. Even the word ale is derived from the medieval hael, meaning "good health."
Government also used beer as a means of collecting taxes. Since beer was made at home, it was impossible to impose a tax directly. However, taxes were levied on the ingredients that were required to produce beer as well as on alehouses. Churches were exempt from this tax since on the grounds that they consumed their own products, but churches often required the community to buy their beers. Because of the resentment of this practice in England, this was but one of the factors that led to the overthrow of the Roman Catholic Church. However, it would not be until after the Reformation and the weakening of the church that brewing became the responsibility of commercial brewers who could be taxed for the beer they brewed.
By the time that the New World was invaded by Europeans, beer was already present. Columbus drank corn beer offered to him by Native American Indians. It is said that the dwindling supply of beer, aboard the Mayflower, in 1620, was what led to the selection of Plymouth as the end of the voyage for the Pilgrim. However, it should be noted that beer was brought on the voyage in place of water. It was recommended by previous voyagers that enough beer and malt be brought on board so that after coming ashore, the Pilgrim would be able to gradually continue to drink and brew some beer before make the transition from beer to water. It was thought that if the transition to water was to occur suddenly, it would cause a "great transformation in their body". Most beer, for a period of time, would be imported from England. It would not be until 1837 that the English immigrants would build the first brewery in Massachusetts and their numbers would eventually grow and expand to other states. However, most people would brew their own beer, using molasses, corn and bran for their sugar sources since only the wealthy were able to afford to import malt from England for brewing beer. This led to the drinking of chocolate, tea and coffee as the beer brewed from the available products was considered inferior to that made from malt. The Dutch, on the other hand, started their own breweries, immediately. These early beers were all ales and it would not be until 1840, when German immigrants started breweries that lager beer would be introduced. Among some of the people that started these German breweries are names that are still familiar today. They include Frederick Pabst, Bernard Stroh, Joseph Schlitz, Adolph Coors, Henry Weinhard and Theodore Hamms. Their lager beers soon displaced the ales, in popularity. By the mid 1600's, breweries were well established in the New World. Beer even contributed to higher education for women, in 1861, when Matthew Vassar invested his fortune, earned in beer, in establishing Vassar College.
With the exception of Prohibition, during the 20th. Century beer has been largely mass-produced and automated. There were approximately 4,137 breweries in the United States in 1876 producing quality beer. This number fell to 1,100, in 1919, the year Prohibition became law.
Prohibition came about as a result of the efforts of the Women's Christian Temperance Union and other temperance groups, which had been promoting prohibition long before the passage of the 18th. Amendment, also known as the Volstead Act that began Prohibition. The law was enacted, based on the tenet that alcohol was the cause of many, if not all of society's problem. It was believed that by outlawing alcohol, society would put an end to drunkenness, crime, mental illness and poverty. However, this would not be the case. Prohibition, instead, increased America's thirst for alcohol and organized crime became more prominent as the producer and distributor of beer. This lead to diminished respect for the law and Federal Government, an increase in drunkenness and crime. The 1920s, in fact, was known as the era of Al Capone, one of Chicago's most infamous organized crime figure who made millions in illegal alcohol sales. Thus, Prohibition was not very popular, but it would be many years before it would be repealed.
The repeal of Prohibition did not take place until December 5, 1933. However, only 700 breweries would reopen and by the 1970s, due to the mergers of many breweries, fewer than 40 breweries remained. Most of the beers brewed during this period were very uniform and bland. The United States had by this time developed a reputation for having the world's worst beer. There were reasons behind this. After WWII, in order to appeal to women, milder tasting beers were developed. Thus, the origin of "light" beer. However, such beers only sold modestly well. It would not be until 1972 that cigarette maker, Philip Morris, would change the face of American beer as well as advertising. Philip Morris acquired Meister Brau and its Lite label that year and renamed it Miller Lite. Using a sophisticated and massive advertising campaign, using well known former athletes and celebrities, to give lite beer a "mancho image" that Miller moved from seventh to second place among U.S. brewers. They were the ones that came out with the slogan: "all you ever wanted in a beer, and less." Thus, business came to realize that promotion of the product and not necessarily product quality that determines the success of a product.
The Evolution of Beer Making (Meussdoerffen,2009)
Today, beer is consumed in vast quantities in this country, and beer making is largely automated as in all mass produced products. Despite the sophisticated machinery that is used in brewing beer, it's still essentially the same procedures that has been used for hundreds of years. I have placed a video on line that I made a number of years ago on the making of beer that will go over the process of making beer rather than covering in lecture. Beer making has become very sophisticated because of technological advances in brewing. Prior to, and even during the 1800's, it was known how beer was brewed, but none knew of the science behind each step. It was not until the 19th. century that it was realized that during germination, of cereal grains, that enzymes were released that would not break down not only the barley starch and protein into simple sugars and amino acids, but would also do the same for other carbohydrates, such as potato, corn and wheat. This realization cheapened the cost of making beer since germinated barley is a greater investment than the utilization of potato, corn and wheat. More importantly, at about the same time that it was that yeasts were the organisms that actually were responsible for the fermentation process.
Although the process of fermentation had been used for thousands of years, it was thought to be a magical rather than a natural process of nature. As a result, many rituals and superstitions developed to direct and control fermentation. By the 17th. Century, it was known that yeast was present during fermentation, but its role was controversial. There were two opposing views on this subject. One view was that yeast was required for the fermentation process, while the other argued that the process was purely chemical. It was not until Louis Pasteur's work, in the 1850's and 1860's, was this argument resolved. Pasteur was asked by the distillers in Lille, France where the manufacture of of alcohol, from beet sugar, was an important local industry, to determine the problem of lactic acid production in their alcohol. Upon examination of the fermentation product under the microscope, Pasteur was able to observe the usual yeast cells, but also noted that there were a large number of smaller rod- and sphere-shaped cells. When Pasteur placed a small amount of this material in a sugar solution, a vigorous lactic acid fermentation occurred along with the formation of a grayish deposit in the solution which proved to be the rod- and sphere-shaped cells. Successive transfers of these cells always resulted in production of lactic acid fermentation and an increase in the number of cells. Pasteur argued that the cells were a new "yeast" that specifically converted sugar to lactic acid during its growth. It would be years later before it was understood that the new "yeast" was actually a bacterium. Using a similar method, Pasteur studied a number of organisms and their fermentative processes. He was able to show that the different fermentation products produced were invariably accompanied by specific microorganisms. This discovery, however, had further significance. Just as the different microorganisms caused different fermentation products from sugar, so did different diseases arise as a result of different microorganisms, and that these microorganisms did not arise spontaneously, as once believed, but that each microorganism was derived from pre-existing cells of the same type. This also led to the concept that by destroying the microorganisms in food products and beverages or by preventing their appearance in sterile products, spoilage could be prevented. This concept led to the heat treatment of food products and beverages that we now know as pasteurization.
In the beginning of beer making, beer was an alcoholic beverage with the flavor of malt and grain. It was flat, slightly sweet and would spoil quickly. It would not be until the 8th. Century, that brewers in central Europe found that the addition of Hops flowers preserved the beer and gave it the slightly bitter taste that made it more palatable. However, Hops was not the only bitter additive used. Various cultures used other bitters; tannins from Oak and Ash trees were used in Scandinavia; cinnamon in southern Europe and in America sweet fennel, licorice or sassafras was used. Nevertheless, by the end of the 15th. Century, it was Hops that became the standard bitter and preservative added to beer. Only in England was there resistance to the use of Hops, but they, too, accepted it by the end of the 16th. Century.
With the genetic manipulation of yeasts, numerous varietal strains have been bred. This, along with modifications in the brewing process have led to different types of beers. Those most often seen in North America include:
Lager. Beers made with yeast (Saccharomyces carlsbergensis) that settle on the bottom of the container used. Thus, all the yeast and other material settles on the bottom which results in a clear beer. Most American beers are lagers.
Pilsner. A colorless lager beer originally brewed in the city of Pilsen. Water used for this style of beer tend to be harder, with a higher calcium and magnesium content than water used for lager. The color of pilsner is also lighter than that of lager beer.
Ale. Beers made with yeast that floats (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to the top of the brewing vats, resulting in a cloudier beer. They tend to have a higher alcohol content than lagers.
Stout. A very dark, almost black ale. The dark color and roasted flavor is derived from the roasted
barley, and/or roasted malt. Beer historians consider it to be the descendant of the Porter ale.
Porter. A very dark ale. The darker color and special flavor comes from toasting the malt before brewing. This usually results in a stronger taste and higher alcohol content. Considered by beer historians to have evolved into the Stout ale.
High Alcoholic Beer
Starting in 1989, Samuel Adams began to increase the alcohol content in their beer, with the seasonal offering of their Double Bock, which had an alcohol content of over 9%. This was followed a few years later, in 1994, with their Triple Bock, which had an alcohol content of 18%, making it the beer with the highest alcohol content at that time. Previously, Samichlaus had the highest alcohol content, at 14%. Although the alcohol content was high, it was not very good to drink. It would not be until 2002 that their landmark Utopias beer would be sold, with an alcohol content of 21%. This would be followed by new “editions” that slowly increased their alcohol content. The second one was 25% and its current 28% was reached 2010.
Although they were the first to come up with the high alcohol content beer, many others followed, and today, Samuel Adams Utopias beer has the lowest alcohol content among the “extreme beers”.
A list of the highest alcohol containing beers are listed below:
Samuel Adams had claimed that their process for brewing high alcohol content beer was the secret “ninja” yeast that they had developed. However, the increase in concentration of alcohol content can readily be achieved by freeze distillation. A demonstration of how this process works can be viewed in the following YouTube video:
History of Wine (Professional Friends of Wine)
As in the case of beer, the place and time of origin of wine is uncertain. Because of the number of different types of wine that are produced, we will restrict our discussion to grape wine. While beer was a human invention, the fermentation of grapes was a natural process and was thought to have been discovered by accident. The species of grapes used in most wines is Vitis vinifera and is known to have been "domesticated" before 4,000 B.C. and was documented at approximately the same time in Egypt. Egyptian royalty and priests drank wine while workers had beer! Wine made before this time probably would have used wild grapes. Unlike beer, women were not associated with wine.
From the Middle East, wine is believed to have first arrived in Europe with the spread of the Greek Civilization. In ancient Greece, Dionysus was said to have given wine to man and his Roman counterpart, Bacchus, was the God of Wine. In Hebrew folklore, it was Adam who planted the first grapevine.
Around the first century A.D. wine was exported from Rome to France (Gaul), Germany, Spain, Portugal and England. These countries would eventually have their own vineyards and produce their own wines, with France eventually becoming dominant in the world's wine market. It was the monasteries of France that would spread the vineyards throughout the country and preserved the making of wine through the dark ages.
With world exploration by sailing ships, wine soon spread to the new world. Spain would establish vineyards in California, Mexico and Argentina. Vineyards that began in Mexico in 1525 were so successful that the King of Spain prevented establishment of more vineyard or their replacements until 1595 because of Mexico becoming a self sufficient wine industry. This edict remained in place for 150 years. However, Vineyard's would eventually become established in California, by the church, through the efforts of a Franciscan Monk, Father Junipero Serra.
The European wine industry would suffer for a number of years due to the Phylloxera roundworm as well as the Downy Mildew of Grapes disease that devastated France in the late 1800s, as was previously covered during our discussion of plant diseases. By this time California had begun to have a small, but respectable wine industry and vineyards had been started in other states as well. However, disaster would struck, not quickly, but very slowly, and not from disease nor natural disaster, but from a political movement that began, in the early 1800s, to prevent the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages due to the alcohol abuse problem that was becoming a national problem in this country at the time. States that supported the ban on sales of alcohol designated themselves as "dry" states. This would continue until in 1919 when the Volstead Act was enacted, i.e. the beginning of Prohibition, and the manufacturing and sales of alcoholic beverages would be made illegal. Prohibition would lead to a decline in morals and increase in crime during the turbulent 1920s, the opposite effect that was anticipated by proponents of Prohibition. Even after prohibition, many states continued to stay "dry" and it would be well into the 1950s before the wine industry in the United States would recover.
As was the case with beer, before 1920, the wine industry was thriving in the United States with more than 2500 commercial wineries. Following the repeal of Prohibition, there would only be less than 100. In California, it would not be until the 1970s that their wines would be considered to be of a quality equaled to that of France. Be that as it may be, there were 718 wineries in California before Prohibition and it would not be until 1986 before that number was reached again.
Making Wine
Wine is made today much the same way that it was centuries ago. However, unlike beer, there is still a great deal that cannot be controlled in the production of wine. You will see this as we discuss the process.
The grapes from which the wine is to be made is first separated from the stem (stemmed) and then crushed in order to release the juice. The combination of the skin, juice and seeds is called the must. Grapes may be crushed by various means, from stomping on them with bare feet to the use of sophisticated electric presses.
If the desired product is a white wine, the free juice is transferred to a fermentation tank and the peels and stems are removed and pressed again. The juice of the second press can be added to the original juice or used to make another lower grade wine. If red wine is the desired product, the skins of the grape go into the fermentation tank with the juice. The red color of this wine is from the red pigment in the epidermis of the grape skin. Various vessels may be used as the fermentation tank. For the home wine maker, the most inexpensive and commonly used vessel is a 32 gallon, plastic garbage can.
Once the juice is in the fermentation tank, preferred strains of yeast are often added, but are not needed. The skin of the grapes already have adequate yeasts on them that this step could be omitted. This is one of the uncontrolled quality of wines. Since the yeasts that grow on the grapes vary in different vineyard, especially if they are in different countries, the quality of the finished wine will also vary. This is probably the basis for the claim that one country's wine is superior to another. The addition of the preferred yeast gives some measure of control to the end product. Sulfur dioxide is normally introduced into the juice at this time to kill bacterial growth that may spoil the taste of the final product. Fermentation is allowed to continue for about eight to ten days, after which the initial wine is drawn off of the skin, if it is still present. Any liquid obtained from the skins that remained during the fermentation is considered to be of a poor quality and is used in poorer quality wines or for vinegar.
After the initial fermentation, the liquid is allowed to ferment for 20 days to about a month. During this second fermentation, the dead yeast cells as well as other particulate matter settle to the bottom. When this process is complete, the wine is separated from the sediment and transferred to an aging tank. As the aging process continues, more sedimentation occurs, and the wine is often transferred across a series of tanks during aging. This process is known as racking. If the final tank is a wooden cask, this also adds another uncontrolled quantity into the final product. Because wooden cask cannot be cleaned, they provide a unique character to the wine some of which are said to make the wine "superior." However, the use of stainless steel vats have removed this uncertainty.
The aging of wine is variable. For white wines, usually one year to eighteen months, but red wines can age for as long as five years. At stages during aging, the wine is sampled and judged by a wine master. The fate of the wine is dependent upon the decision of the wine master. The wine may be bottled after aging is complete or used only as a blend to make an inferior wine. The bottled wine, again, based on the decision of the wine master, may be aged longer in the bottles or sold immediately after bottling. Thus, is the variability of the finished wine product.
White wines can benefit from aging for up to five years, after which they will tend to deteriorate. Red wines, on the other hand, can continue to improve for thirty or even up to forty years.
The above wines are "still" wines because they are fermented in open tanks and contain no gaseous carbon dioxide. If fermentation stops before the sugars have all been metabolized by the yeast, the finish product is a sweet wine. If all the sugars have been metabolized, the wine is said to be dry. As in the case of beer, the percent alcohol content will be 12.5-18%, depending on the category of wine. However, in fruit wines, the percentage is lower because the amount of sugars in other fruits are generally lower. Even with the addition of sugar, fruit wines are generally 5 to 7% alcohol.
A detailed recipe for red and white wines can be downloaded from the Viticulture and Enology Department at the University of California at Davis. They have a nice web page on making wine at home, with wine making recipes in pdf files.
Champagne and Other Sparkling Wines
In order to obtain carbonation, extra sugar is added to yeast while the yeast is still actively fermenting and then tightly cap. The build up of carbon dioxide will carbonate the beverage to give you the bubbly effect. This is somewhat tricky since if too much fermentation occurs, the tightly sealed bottle can explode from the built up pressure. What about really cheap champagne? The price of the champagne does not necessarily mean that quality is lacking. Some champagnes are cheap because they are mass produced in large vats rather than handled as individual bottles.
Auto-brewery (=Gut Fermentation Syndrome), A Dream Come True?
Gut fermentation syndrome is the process by which carbohydrates in the intestines of an individual is fermented by an excess growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. With ingestion of sufficient amounts of carbohydrates, S. cerevisiae fermentation can render an individual drunk, even though no alcohol was actually consumed. Over the last three decades gut fermentation syndrome have been a rare phenomenon and most reports were anecdotal. However, a case study was recently published by Cordell and McCarthy (2013). The incident occurred with an unidentified Texas man who was admitted to the hospital in 2008, when he began feeling dizzy, unable to walk easily and was slurring his words. His wife believed that he was having a stroke and did not think alcohol was the cause since he had not been drinking. After arriving at the hospital, he was given a blood test and determined that his blood alcohol level was .27(you can be arrested for DUI, in Hawaii, if you blood alcohol level is .08). The man's problem was just beginning at that point because he was unable to convince anybody that he had not consumed alcohol on occasions when he was pronounced to be drunk. However, it was eventually discovered that there was an overgrowth of S. cerevisiae that was fermenting carbohydrates that was the cause of his problems. A low carbohydrate diet and a series of antifungal medications resolved the problem.
A much more serious case was recorded in Teeside, Australia (Innes, 2013). Mathew Hogg, 34, had been living with this condition for 20 years before the gut fermentation syndrome was diagnosed. He lives on a very strict diet, where no alcohol can be consumed and must adhere to a low carbohydrate/sugar diet. However, these measures cannot totally prevent alcohol formation from forming in his body. He is unable to hold down a job and mostly stays at home, unable to go out in public. Unlike the case of the man from Texas, Hogg's condition is so severe that treatment with low carbohydrate diet and antifungal medications have not been able resolved this problem.
Kombucha
A beverage that is non-alcoholic that came to my attention, during the 1990s, is commonly known as Kombucha, but has many common names, "Tea Fungus", "Manchurian Mushroom", and "Fungus Japonicus", just to name a few. However, these names, as is the case with many common names, are misleading. The "fungus" in this case is actually a composite organism, composed of yeast fungi, but also bacteria as well, but not mushrooms. The organisms involved are:
Acetobacter xylinum - Vinegar producing bacterium
Acetobacter xylinoides - Vinegar producing bacterium
Saccharomycodes ludwigii
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Saccaromyces cerevisiae
The first two are bacteria and the last three are yeasts. When grown together, they take on an interesting appearance (Fig. 1). The bacteria or the yeast species, by themselves, will not form the fruiting body shown below. Only when they are together will this structure form. They have the color and consistency of a fillet of sole and looks somewhat like "fish cake". However, do not try to eat it. I have been told that it is toxic!
Figure 1: Physical appearance of Kombucha "Fungus"
The first documented record of its use was in 221 B.C., during the Tsing Dynasty of China. It was said to be the "Tea of Immortality" in China. From there it soon spread to Russia and India. Thus, like the alcoholic beverages, it is also an old beverage. It was used as a herbal remedy and currently is popular for that reason. The tea that is made from Kombucha is said to a remedy for many ailments, arthritis, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, cancer, AIDs, and many many more. However, there has been little scientific research done on the virtues of this beverage, but it is probably safe to say that many of the claims made of this beverage are "exaggerated".
The recipe for making the tea from Kombucha (40 fluid ounces) that I was given is:
Boil 40 fluid ounces of water in metal container, with a lid.
After boiling, add one third to one half cup of sugar.
Add two regular size tea bag or an equivalent amount of tea to water.
Allow tea to steep for 10 to 15 minutes and then remove tea bag.
Cover tea and allow to cool to room temperature.
Pour tea into a 64 fluid ounce glass container.
Pour 8 to 12 fluid ounces of previously made tea or a piece of Kombucha fungus into container.
Cover tea with unbleached filter paper held in place with a rubber band.
Allow to incubate for about a week before drinking. You should see the beginning of a new Kombucha fungus growing at the top of the tea at this time.
Guenther's Web site, in Germany, also gives a variation of the above recipe, but has pictures. If you have difficulty visualizing what is done in the above recipe, you may want to visit that site.
Literature Cited
Cardell, B. and J. McCarthy. 2013. A Case Study of Gut Fermentation Syndrome (Auto-Brewery) with Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the Causative Organisms. International Journal of Clinical Medicine 4:309-312.
Fallon, S. (January 1, 2000). Kvass and Kombucha: Gifts From Russia. Retrieved from http://www.westonaprice.org/food-features/kvass-and-kombucha.
Hall, M. (January 13, 2007). Beer History. Retrieved from http://www.drinkingbeer.net/BeerArticles/Beer_History.php5
Innes, E. (October 4, 2013). Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2443650/I-dont-need-pub--Ive-got-brewery-BELLY-Teetotaller-wakes-hangover-day-rare-digestive-disorder.html
Miller, C. (2002). Beer and Television: Perfectly Tuned in. Retrieved from http://www.beerhistory.com/library/holdings/beer_commercials.shtml
Meussdoeffer, F.G. 2009. A Comprehensive History of Beer Brewing. In H. M. Esslinger (Ed.), Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets (pp. 1-42). Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
Professional Friends of Wine. (October 2, 2011). Wine History...Science and Social Impact Through Time. Retrieved November 9, 2011, from http://www.winepros.org/wine101/history.htm.
Mycological Terms
There are a large number of brewing and wine making terms. I have only included a few, below. If you are interested in looking up more terms, I have included links to glossary for brewing and winemaking.
Beer: Any alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of sugars obtained from grain. In western culture, barley is the grain generally used.
Ethanol: Alcohol that is the metabolic product of yeast in the wine and beer making. Specifically, it is produced by the yeast during fermentation.
Fermentation: The process by which yeast converts sugars into alcohol and CO2.
Hops: Flower of hops added as ingredient to beer that gives it a bitter taste. However, it also serves as a preservative that gives it a longer shelf life.
Kombucha: A tea that is brewed with a fruiting body that is composed of several species of bacteria and yeast and said to be of medicinal value. Also known as Manchurian Mushroom Tea, Fungus Japonicus and Tea Fungus.
Kvass: An Eastern European drink that is 1 to 2% alcohol and can be designated as non-alcoholic for this reason. Said to have many health benefits.
Sake: Often referred to as Japanese Rice Wine, but is actually a beer because the alcohol is fermented from rice, which is a grain.
Wine: Usually fermentation of grape juice, but may also be other fruit juices as well, e.g., elderberry, peach, apple, etc.
Yeast: In wine and beer making, the "ingredient" that converts the simple sugars into ethanol. The most common species used are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsburgiensis. However, other species are also used.
Questions to Think About
1. What is Kombucha? What organisms make up the “SCOBY”?
2. What is a SOBY?
3. What are the two categories of alcoholic beverages and how do you distinguish between them?
4. What is the chemical reaction for fermentation of sugar to ethanol?
5. Early beer was bland and quickly went bad. However, even children drank it. Why?
6. What are some examples of beers from other cultures? How do they differ?
7. Recently, some beers have come out that have alcohol contents ranging from 28-67.5% . How is this possible?
8. Why is the alcoholic content of most wines and beers less than 12%?
9. Why is alcoholic content in liquors so high?
10. What is auto brewery syndrome?