Methodology

Study Area

This study was conducted in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. The height of Kinabalu—and, in particular, Low Peak—was previously considered (and published as) 13,455 feet (4,101 meters). However, a 1997 survey with satellite technology reset its peak elevation at 13,435 feet (4,095 meters). Kota Kinabalu is the capital of the state of Sabah in the northern part of the island of Borneo. Kota Kinabalu is at latitude 5.983° and longitude 116.067° and is located on the west coast of Sabah. Often referred to as KK, it is a coastal town partially surrounded by rainforest. It is famous for its bustling market, modern walkways, beaches and Kota Kinabalu City Mosque. It is also the gateway to Kinabalu National Park, home to the 4,095m Mount Kinabalu. The city of Kota Kinabalu is also famous for its rapidly developing industrial area from 2010 until 2023. The Kota Kinabalu area is also constantly polluted with air pollution such as vehicle smoke, development and burning factory smoke.

Sampling Equipment

High volume air sampler: Used to collect large volumes of air to capture enough particles for analysis. It consists of an inlet, a filter holder and a vacuum pump.

Quartz fiber filter: Used as a collection substrate for particulate matter. Quartz filters are preferred because of their chemical stability and low background contamination.

Sampling Site Selection:

Identify representative locations for sampling that are affected by different emission sources (eg, industrial areas, urban areas, residential areas, etc.).

Consider factors such as proximity to pollution sources, meteorological conditions and regulatory guidelines for the sampling site.

Sampling Procedure:

Calibrate and set up the high-volume air sampler according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Install the sampler at the designated sampling site, ensuring that it is securely positioned and protected from environmental disturbances.

Set sampling periods based on study objectives and regulatory requirements (eg, 24 hours, weekly, monthly).

Ensure regular sampler maintenance, including filter replacement and equipment inspections, to prevent contamination and ensure consistent sampling efficiency.

Filter Collection and Handling:

After the sampling period, carefully remove the filter from the sampler and place it in a clean, labeled Petri dish or sample container.

Handle the filter with clean gloves to avoid contamination from skin oils or other particles.

Store the filter in a cool, dry place to minimize any potential degradation or chemical reaction until further analysis.

Laboratory Analysis:

Analyze the collected filters using appropriate techniques to determine the chemical composition of particulate matter. Common methods include:

Gravimetric analysis: Measures the mass of particles collected on a filter.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF): Determines the composition of elements by exciting particles with X-rays and measuring the emitted fluorescence.

Ion chromatography (IC): Analyzes the ionic composition of water-soluble components in particulate matter.

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS): Measuring trace metals in particulate matter.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR): Identifies organic functional groups present in particles.

Follow appropriate quality control procedures during sample analysis, including calibration, blank measurement, and replicate analysis to ensure accuracy and precision of results.

Data analysis:

Analysis of chemical composition data obtained to determine the type and level of particulate matter constituents present.

Perform statistical analysis and interpret results to identify sources, spatial-temporal patterns, and potential health or environmental implications.