Let's Reflect on Intelligence
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There is one set of brain exercises on the BrainHQ site that are intended to help improve your intelligence. What exactly does this mean? What is intelligence? And why would computer exercises improve it?
Intelligence has been defined in many ways. Those definitions have included the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, and more. Many tests of intelligence measure what we know at a particular point in time. A few others attempt to assess our ability to learn. Controversy regarding definitions, how it is measured, and causes of intelligence continue.
The following table includes a few words about “intelligence” from some of the major researchers.
A Look Back at “Intelligence”
Over 2,300 years ago the Greek philosopher Aristotle made reference to “reason” (Everyday Psych, 2021). Aristotle proposed that “reasoning” was about humans’ ability to reign in their passions, e.g, our ability to resist the urge of our instincts. This was what made us different than the animals. Humans can reason, and animals cannot.
Until the 1,600s, the accepted belief was that intelligence was “all or nothing” ability. Charles Darwin, 200 years later, found through his research that there may be degrees to this “reasoning”. Darwin referred to “reason” as “mental powers.” For Darwin, reason could be broken down into gradations, where some people have more and some have less (Everyday Psych 2021).
With the turn of the 19th century and the introduction of the Industrial Age, this idea of intelligence as adaptability became more specific. With the standardization of factory work and the specialization of occupations, it was much easier to quantify “adaptability.” People in factories were doing very similar jobs, it was easy to compare those who succeeded versus those who did not.
Frances Galton narrowed the definition of intelligence even further: people’s ability to gain reputation and success in a professional endeavor, particularly, scholarly ones (Everday Psych 2021).
In 1903, Alfred Binet published his methods for an “intelligence test,” and its application to schools became quickly apparent–so much so, that classrooms themselves were altered and standardized to foster a better testing environment for determining students’ intelligence (e.g., that’s why certain class content is mandatory; there are set lengths of times for each class).
A few years after intelligence testing burst onto the scene, World War I broke out, and the United States, which had a relatively small army at the time, began to mass enlist people into the military. It was important to assign people to specific roles and responsibilities. However, this proved difficult for military officials because they had no way to categorize new recruits’ aptitude for different jobs.
Until this time, intelligence tests were individually administered. Administering an intelligence test to millions of recruits simply was not an option. To resolve this, researchers created a standardized, multiple choice test with responses that could be scored. This standardized test could be administered at one time, to large numbers of recruits sitting in the same room.
An “intelligence test” suddenly gained popularity, solidifying mainstream society’s acceptance of an IQ.
Intelligence Testing
Many of us equate intelligence with IQ (IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient), which is a way to measure a person’s cognitive abilities as compared to others of the same age or grade level. Individually administered tests include the Wechsler Scales, Stanford-Binet Tests, and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability. Even a 100 years after the work of Binet, IQ tests are routinely used by school districts to identify children for special education services.
Scores from intelligence tests are estimates of intelligence. Unlike, for example, distance and mass, a concrete measure of intelligence cannot be achieved given the abstract nature of the concept of "intelligence". There is also a great deal of controversy around the cause of intelligence. Is it our genes? Is it our environment? As with so many aspects of human functioning, it is a combination of both.
Most IQ tests are inherently biased against individuals who have not been exposed to specific information or who have different life values. Many are also very language-based and penalize those for whom English is not their first language. There is an ugly and troubling history of offensive categories for people who do not do well on IQ tests.
What is apparent is that intelligence is much more than an IQ score. This is evidenced through ongoing observations that two people with the same IQ can function quite differently. Many factors impact the degree to which we make good choices and decisions in our lives.
Categories of Intelligence
Psychologist Raymond Cattell (Cattell, 1963) was one of the first psychologists to describe intelligence as multi-faceted. He proposed the idea that intelligence can be divided into two categories: crystalized and fluid.
Crystallized intelligence was referred to as the ability to make use of acquired information or knowledge (what we may call “book smart”). It also draws upon what you have learned and continue to learn about the world around you. It increases with age. This improvement is reflected in the ability to make qualified decisions, which also increases as we age.
Fluid intelligence has less to do with information and more to do with the ability to be adaptable and solve problems (more like “street smarts”). People who have high levels of fluid intelligence are good at solving problems and thinking outside the box. It requires a sense of awareness and open-mindedness.
Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason in an abstract way. Abstract reasoning is important in seeing things from other perspectives and to modify beliefs when you discover that your existing information is wrong. In the past, it was believed that fluid intelligence peaks in early adulthood, and then declines gradually. It was thought that training could not improve fluid intelligence. However, research has begun to suggest that fluid intelligence is not set in adolescence, and may in fact be learned.
A key to training fluid intelligence is in building working memory. The complexity of tasks involved in the formation of the working memory influences the amount of information that can be stored. These complex tasks require a type of mental control program that aids in creating rules for memory. Fluid intelligence is linked closely to the efficiency of constructing these mental control programs.
The BrainHQ Intelligence exercises work to improve working memory and to manipulate pieces of information quickly. They help to build the mental control programs to aid memory and build efficiency in using these mental programs.
Types of Intelligence
Besides the two categories of intelligence (fluid and crystallized), there has also been some research on multiple types of intelligence. American psychologist Howard Gardner (Gardner, 1993) was one to propose a multidimensional approach to intelligence. In his theory, there are 9 types of intelligence. Dr. Gardner’s theory implies that you are strong in some areas, and relatively less so in others. People usually have varying abilities across each of these intelligence types. Within each type, you can have fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
Dr. Gardner’s 9 types of intelligence include:
1. Visual Intelligence (picture smart)
2. Linguistic Intelligence (story tellers)
3. Logical and Mathematical intelligence (math smart)
4. Musical intelligence (good with sounds)
5. Bodily and Kinesthetic intelligence (learn by moving)
6. Interpersonal intelligence (works well with others)
7. Intrapersonal intelligence (self-smart)
8. Naturalistic intelligence (nature smart)
9. Existential Intelligence (deep thinker)
Crystal and fluid intelligence are embedded within each of Gardner’s types of intelligences, For example, within the musical intelligence category, you can have crystallized intelligence (knowledge of music scores, composers, historic dates) and fluid intelligence (understanding of scales, genre, etc.).
Watch this easy-to-understand video about the 9 types of intelligence theorized by Howard Gardner. It helps explain the differences between each type (5:49 minutes).
Where is Intelligence?
Imagine if your intelligence was measured by the bumps on your head. Phrenology involves the measurement of bumps on the head to assess “mental faculties" (Wihe, 2002). Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796, the discipline was influential in the 19th century, especially from about 1810 until 1840 (Graham, 2001). Of course, we have come to understand that bumps on the head do not reflect mental faculties. Intelligence, like our brains, is very complex. There is no one region or function that completely defines “intelligence”.
The brain processes underlying intelligence are not completely understood, but current research has focused on four potential factors: brain size, sensory ability, speed and efficiency of neural transmission, and working memory capacity (University of Minnesota Library, 2021). Intelligence has been found to be correlated with the number of neurons in the brain and with the thickness of the cortex (Haier, 2004; Shaw et al., 2006).
One possibility is that the brains of more people who behave more intelligently operate faster or more efficiently than the brains of those who seem less intelligence. Some evidence supporting this idea comes from data showing that people who are more intelligent frequently show less brain activity (suggesting that they need to use less capacity) than those with lower intelligence when they work on the same task (Haier, Siegel, Tang, & Abel, 1992). The brains of more intelligent people also seem to run faster than the brains of the less intelligent. Research has found that the speed with which people can perform simple tasks—such as determining which of two lines is longer or pressing, as quickly as possible, one of eight buttons that is lighted—is predictive of intelligence (Deary, Der, & Ford, 2001). Intelligence scores also correlate with measures of working memory (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005), and working memory is now used as a measure of intelligence on many tests.
Although intelligence is not located in a specific part of the brain, it is more prevalent in some brain areas than others. Duncan et al. (2000) administered a variety of intelligence tasks and observed the places in the cortex that were most active. Different tests created different patterns of activation. These activated areas were primarily in the outer parts of the cortex, the area of the brain most involved in planning, executive control, and short-term memory.
Ways to Optimize our Intelligence
Our genetics and our environment are both strong influences on our intellectual abilities. We may not be able to change our genetic make-up, but we can make brain healthy choices to optimize our abilities.
1. BrainHQ: Our BrainHQ program and other research has shown that we can improve our own intelligence by taking part in certain activities. One of these is to use brain training tools such as BrainHQ, which have been shown to improve fluid intelligence. Check out the exercises below to focus on BrainHQ's Intelligence category.
2. Growth Mindset: Research has suggested that our view of intelligence can affect school performance (Dweck, 2008). Students who have a “growth mindset” believe that intelligence is something that they can improve by working hard. If they have a “fixed mindset,” they believe that intelligence is innate and unable to be changed. In a number of studies from various sources, it was found that students with the growth mindset were able to dramatically improve test scores when compared with those with a fixed mindset. In a follow up study, researchers found that by giving children an article on how neurons continue to grow throughout life, and how effort can enhance this growth, they found that those children performed better (they believed in the growth mindset) (Dweck, 2008).
3. Eating:
The fuel (food) you choose for your body will likely influence your intelligence (Aaronson, 2012). We often discuss nutrition as a way to enhance our body and brain health. Much of the evidence is based on personal experience. With that in mind, let’s take a look at oatmeal. In 1997, the Quaker Oats box began to include the cholesterol-lowering effects of the cereal after the FDA found that whole grains reduced blood fat. Why would that improve your intelligence? Well, you may know that what is good for the heart is also good for the brain. The brain requires about 20% of our oxygen intake, a strong cardiovascular system will help deliver that oxygen to the brain.
Oatmeal is only one of a growing number of food types which are said to improve the delivery of oxygen to the heart, thus improving your brain health and intelligence. Other things mentioned in research:
Glucose in ripe grapes and honey can lead to formation of memories
The fat in fish (such as salmon) can improve the cell membranes and therefore delivery of neurotransmitters to the brain
There are two food-based derivatives which boost mitochondria in the cell and enable the cells to get rid of free radicals released when they are metabolized. These food-based derivatives are acetyl-L-carnitine (found in milk, meat and avocado) and lipoic acid (found in beef, spinach and broccoli).
Plant based antioxidants flavonoid (found in brightly colored fruits and in green tea) are another option. Think berries, grape juice, red wine and turmeric.
Choline (found in eggs, liver and soybeans) may create more acetylcholine in the brain, thereby improving memory.
Exercise to Keep Your Brain Fit (Greider, 2014)
Like nutrition, exercise is enjoying a heyday in brain fitness. There has been much research, most of which found that physical activity was effective in improving brain function. The hypothesis is that exercise stimulates blood flow to the brain and nerve growth, which creates more complex neuron groups, as well as neurons which are stronger and better able to resist disease. Moderate aerobic exercise such as long brisk walks and stairs can accomplish this.
Meditation (Puff, 2013)
One observation that social scientists have discovered is that we may each have a natural “set point” in our brains for good and bad emotions. People accustomed to being happy have more activity in the front portion of their frontal lobes, while those who worry have more activity in the right side of the frontal lobe. Even when there is a particularly good or a particularly bad event (winning the lottery, life changing accident), the brain returns to its normal state within six months.
However, studies have demonstrated that we can change our set point through meditation. One study suggested that after only eight weeks of meditating for about one hour a day, six days a week, test subjects reported that they were happier. Follow-up tests showed that their set points had changed. They were also better at picking up emotional cues from others and had more empathy. Researchers have performed MRIs of long-time meditators and found that their brains were larger than the non-meditating counterparts. Other studies suggested that regular meditators don’t lose their gray matter as fast as non-meditators. The meditators seem to have thicker tissue in the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for attention and control.
Controversy Over Technology (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013)
As we recall from the earlier part of the handout, there are two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. Fluid intelligence is the way that we process complex information. Crystallized intelligence are things that we already know. We can increase our crystallized intelligence by increasing knowledge. However, technology has created a way for us to find information readily, without committing it to our memory. So, currently, our need to solve problems for example requires that we be able to connect to a place where we can retrieve an answer.
On the other hand, learning to use technology is good for brain health. For example, using the information from the Internet in a creative way (fluid intelligence) strengthens our abilities. If we rely on technology to process things for us, we will gradually weaken our ability to process information. As we are more dependent on technology, our main challenge will be in learning how to use it. If we learn new technologies and use them to stretch our minds, we can reap many brain benefits.
Have you ever asked yourself how technology actually changes the brain? Watch this 15 minute video for some interesting answers
Introducing "Attention Intelligence" is a video that reminds us of the importance of focusing the intellectual capacity to use the intelligence better.
Try a 5 minute meditation to work on your attention skills.
Summary
Capturing a complete definition of intelligence may not be possible, therefore tests that purport to measure it are unlikely to be completely valid. The history of intelligence testing is rampant with abuses and misuses of test results. Intelligence tests do not measure the value or worth of any one or group of individuals. While understanding our strengths and opportunities for improvement may guide us as we make life choices, each of us has the ability to improve the quality of our life, contribute to society, and live to our full potential. Those who succeed in doing this, are likely the most intelligent among us.
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