Chemistry

Paracetamol - widely used but not fully understood

By Muftah Ezwawah

In the UK it is estimated that just under 6300 tonnes of paracetamol is sold every year¹. Although the purpose of paracetamol is well known, its mechanism of action is not amongst those who consume it and even those who study it. Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is an effective analgesic which means that it acts to relieve pain. This is different from an anaesthetic which temporarily affects or eliminates sensation. The effects of this mild analgesic last between 2 and 4 hours² thus providing short term pain relief. Paracetamol has analgesic and antipyretic properties similar to NSAIDs such as Ibuprofen but contrary to them it does not exhibit any anti-inflammatory activity³.

The exact mechanism of action for paracetamol is not fully understood. It is believed that it inhibits an enzyme in the brain and central nervous system called cyclo-oxygenase (COX). This enzyme is understood to be involved in pain sensation as well as body temperature, which explains why paracetamol is effective in treating a fever. When cells in the body are damaged, they release a chemical called arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in the plasma membranes of cells, particularly in the brain, muscles and liver. The metabolism of arachidonic acid produces prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes⁴. Arachidonic acid is converted into prostaglandins by the aforementioned enzyme COX. Prostaglandins are produced by the body in response to disease and injury. They act to sensitise nerve endings which means when that area is stimulated, it causes pain⁵ The inhibition of the enzyme COX by paracetamol prevents the production of prostaglandins, thus reducing pain and fever. The enzyme COX actually has two active sites - the COX and peroxidase (POX) sites. The conversion of arachidonic acid into the prostanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes and prostacyclins) is a two-stage process. Prostaglandin G₂ is first produced by activity at the COX site and is then converted to prostaglandin H₂ at the POX site. The activity of the enzyme COX relies on it being in the oxidised form and it is thought that paracetamol interferes with this by acting as a reducing co-substrate at the POX site⁶.

As mentioned before, the mechanism of action for paracetamol is not entirely understood by the scientific community despite it being commercially available since the 1950s. The mechanism outlined above is therefore theoretical and hence not proven. Despite paracetamol being an effective analgesic at suitable doses, it can be hepatotoxic at large doses. When paracetamol is metabolised in the body, NAPQI is produced. NAPQI decreases the liver’s glutathione and damages cells in the liver⁷.

Electron Spin

By Sam Robertson

What is electron spin?

Electron spin of an electron is a ‘quantum property’ and is a form of angular momentum in which electrons spin around their axis which is permanent and similar to that of which the earth rotates on a daily basis.

Why do electrons spin?

We don’t know. However, we do know the importance of their spin and what it impacts.

Types of spin

Electrons can have two different spins; if an electron spins clockwise on its axis it’s described as spin-up and if anticlockwise is spin-down.

There is electron spin and electron spin quantum number:

• Electron spin represented as s has only one possible value of ½
• Electron spin quantum number is represented as m_s and can be positive or negative correlating to spin up and spin down respectively.

Magnetic fields

Electrons spin results in a magnetic field. When two electrons with opposite spins are together there is no overall magnetic field as the positive and negative spins cancel each other out. Therefore, electron spin determines whether an atom will generate a magnetic field.

• Atoms with unpaired electrons are paramagnetic and the lack of spin balance results in the atom being attracted to magnets.
• Atoms with no unpaired electrons are diamagnetic and since all spins are balanced the atoms are not attracted to magnets.

Spin down, or negative ½, electrons have magnetic field lines from north to south and spin up electrons are the opposite.

Orbitals are always filled with oppositely spinning electrons. When filling orbitals within a subshell all orbitals are filled with a single spin up electron before pairing orbitals with a spin down electron.

Hund’s rule

Hund's rule dictates that electrons enter empty orbitals before they pair up as it minimises repulsion. It also explains that unpaired electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spins which technically could be spin up or down but is typically represented as spin up.

Potassium Cyanide

By Marcus Kaniewski 8S

Potassium Cyanide is a deadly chemical and is better known for its use in the suicide pill which has killed many people including Hitler. In this article I will explain how it is used, where it is used, it’s origins and what it’s made of, and what effects it has on the body. There isn’t much difference between Hydrogen Cyanide, Potassium Cyanide, Cyanogen Cyanide, and Sodium Cyanide other than Hydrogen Cyanide is a gas, Sodium Cyanide, Cyanogen Cyanide, and Potassium Cyanide are all salts but there are differences in there compounds so I will only be covering Potassium Cyanide but the effects and compound do closely resemble all of the other “Cyanides''. However I remind you that both Potassium and Sodium

Cyanide can react to Hydrogen Cyanide. There are also many different Cyanide compounds but only Sodium, Potassium, Cyanogen, and Hydrogen Cyanide is deadly.

So What Actually Is Potassium Cyanide?

Potassium cyanide is a compound with the formula KCN. This colourless crystalline salt, similar in appearance to sugar, is highly soluble in water. Most KCN is used in gold mining, organic synthesis, and electroplating. Smaller applications include jewellery for chemical gilding and buffing. It was discovered in 1782 by a Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who prepared it from the pigment Prussian blue. Hydrogen cyanide and its compounds are used for many chemical processes, including fumigation, the case hardening of iron and steel, electroplating, and the concentration of ores.

So What Are The Symptoms/Effects Of Potassium Cyanide?

Potassium Cyanide poisoning is very dangerous and if you think you have it you need to get urgent emergency medical care. The symptoms/effects of Cyanide poisoning are as follows:

• Overall Weakness
• Nausea
• Confusion
• Headache
• Difficulty Breathing
• Seizure
• Loss Of Consciousness
• Cardiac Arrest

Acute Cyanide Poisoning Symptoms/Effects Are As Follows:

• difficulty breathing
• seizure
• loss of consciousness
• cardiac arrest

Chronic Cyanide Poisoning Symptoms/Effects Are As Follows:

• headache
• drowsiness
• nausea
• vomiting
• vertigo
• bright red flush
• dilated pupils
• clammy skin
• slower, shallower breaths
• weaker, more rapid pulse
• convulsions

If the condition remains undiagnosed and untreated, it can lead to:

• slow, irregular heart rate
• reduced body temperature
• blue lips, face, and extremities
• coma
• death

What's It’s Chemical Formula?

Cyanide is simply 2 atoms, one of Carbon and one of Nitrogen bonded together as a unit (-CN) that forms part of a larger molecule. There are a staggering number of Cyanide compounds, and their toxicity depends on the ease with which the bond between the Cyanide unit and the rest of the molecule can be broken. For example the bond between Cyanide and a Hydrogen atom in Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) is very easily broken and the compound therefore is extremely toxic; 50-150mg can kill an adult.

What Antidotes Are There?

The first step to treating a suspected case of Cyanide Poisoning is to identify the source of exposure. This will help your doctor or other healthcare provider determine the appropriate decontamination method. In the case of a fire or other emergency incident, rescue personnel will use protective gear like face masks, eye shields, and double gloves to enter the area and take you to a safe location. If you have ingested cyanide, you may be given activated charcoal to help absorb the toxin and safely clear it from your body. Cyanide exposure can affect oxygen intake, so your doctor may administer 100 percent oxygen via a mask or endotracheal tube. In severe cases, your doctor may administer one of two antidotes:

• Cyanide Antidote Kit
• Hydroxocobalamin (Cyanokit)

The cyanide antidote kit consists of three medications given together: amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulfate. The amyl nitrite is given by inhalation for 15 to 30 seconds, while sodium nitrite is administered intravenously over three to five minutes. Intravenous sodium thiosulfate is administered for about 30 minutes. Hydroxocobalamin will detoxify Cyanide by binding with it to produce nontoxic vitamin B-12. This medication neutralizes Cyanide at a slow enough rate to allow an enzyme called rhodanese to further detoxify Cyanide in the liver.

Most Cyanides are very deadly and some are easy to consume. I hope you have learnt something from this article and feel free to do some research about Cyanides. If you want to know more about poisons then one book you can read is “A Is For Arsenic - The Poisons Of Agatha Christie”. This book contains information about Arsenic, Belladonna, Cyanide, Digitalis, Eserine, Hemlock, Monkshood, Nicotine, Opium, Phosphorus, Ricin, Strychnine, Thallium, Veronal, and so many more.

Botulinum Toxin VS Polonium 210 Toxin - Which Is Deadlier?

By Marcus Kaniewski 8S

Botulinum Toxin & Polonium Toxin are both arguably the most deadly toxin known to man, there are strong arguments for both sides but in this article i’m going to delve into which toxin is actually deadlier. This article may contain some distressing content to some viewers. But hopefully this should give you an insight into how these toxins are used and how they work.

The Origins Of Botulinum

The interesting thing about Botulinum Toxin is that it originates from Botox. Botox is used in cosmetic surgery: Botox blocks signals from the nerves to the muscles (by paralyzing the underlying muscles). The injected muscle can no longer contract due to paralysis, which causes the wrinkles to relax and soften. It is most often used on forehead lines, crow's feet (lines around the eye) and frown lines. Wrinkles caused by sun damage and gravity will not respond to Botox.

The Origins Of Polonium

Polonium was founded by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie. Polonium is a very rare natural element. It is found in uranium ores but it is uneconomical to extract it. It is obtained by bombarding bismuth-209 with neutrons to give bismuth-210, which then decays to form polonium. All the commercially produced polonium in the world is made in Russia. Polonium radioactive. In commercial applications, polonium is occasionally used to remove static electricity in machinery or dust from photographic film. It can also be used as a lightweight heat source for thermoelectric power in space satellites.

What Does Botulinum Toxin Do?

The condition Botulism can be found as 3 poisonings, Foodborne Botulism: The harmful bacteria thrive and produce the toxin in environments with little oxygen, such as in home-canned food, Wound Botulism: If these bacteria get into a cut, they can cause a dangerous infection that produces the toxin, and Infant Botulism: This most common form of botulism begins after Clostridium botulinum bacterial spores grow in a baby's intestinal tract. It typically occurs in babies between the ages of 2 months and 8 months, all of these poisonings originate from bacteria called Clostridium Botulinum. This is what is known as Botulinum Toxin Poisoning. Symptoms and effects are:

Foodborne Botulism:

• Difficulty swallowing or speaking
• Dry mouth
• Facial weakness on both sides of the face
• Blurred or double vision
• Drooping eyelids
• Trouble breathing
• Nausea, vomiting and abdominal cramps
• Paralysis

Wound Botulism:

• Difficulty swallowing or speaking
• Facial weakness on both sides of the face
• Blurred or double vision
• Drooping eyelids
• Trouble breathing
• Paralysis

Infant Botulism

• Constipation, which is often the first sign
• Floppy movements due to muscle weakness and trouble controlling the head
• Weak cry
• Irritability
• Drooling
• Drooping eyelids
• Tiredness
• Difficulty sucking or feeding
• Paralysis

And for all of them - eventually - Death, Botulism Poisoning is extremely quick which is why it is important to see a doctor as soon as possible if you think you have Botulism Poisoning.

What Does Polonium 210 Toxin Do?

Toxicologists estimate that one gram of polonium-210 could be enough to kill 50 million people and make another 50 million people ill. The 3 main ways Polonium gets inside you is by inhalation, ingestion, or entry through skin abrasions or wounds and is not contagious unless someone consumes bodily fluids from the poisoned person. Polonium-210 is a known carcinogen. When inhaled, it causes lung cancer. When swallowed, it becomes concentrated in red blood cells, before spreading to the liver, kidneys, bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract, and the testicles or ovaries. As polonium spreads around the body, it leaves a trail of reactive radicals, because it takes electrons from any molecule in its path. Damage to DNA from the alpha particle radiation can cause apoptosis, or "cell suicide." Even low-level DNA damage can cause genetic changes that affect the cells' ability to reproduce. Different organs and tissues vary in their sensitivity to the alpha radiation damage. Bone marrow tissue is particularly susceptible, because it creates the blood cells, and also the lining of the gut. The main difficulty with diagnosing polonium-210 poisoning is that it is so rare. No one would expect it. Some laboratories in the U.S. can carry out urine tests to assess it. Symptoms would depend on the strength of polonium used.

They would likely include:

• nausea and vomiting
• anorexia
• hair loss
• lowered white blood cell count, or lymphopenia
• diarrhea
• damage to bone marrow

The higher the dose, the faster the effect will be. After these acute symptoms, the patient may appear to recover, but bone marrow damage will continue, resulting in lower white blood cell and platelet counts. Next, depending on the dose, various body organs will be affected, including the bone marrow, the gastrointestinal system, and the cardiovascular and central nervous system (CNS). If the CNS is affected, this is irreversible and leads to death. At high doses, this can lead to confusion, convulsion, and coma within minutes of the poisoning. Finally, the person will either die or recover. If they do not recover, they will die within weeks or months. Anyone who survives may take months to recover.

So Which Is Deadlier?

Both of them are extremely deadly and have killed many people however poisonings of these substances don’t happen everyday. It all depends on the dose given, Botulinum is a very deadly neurotoxin and Polonium is a very deadly element and in some cases toxin. They will both kill and require emergency medical assistance. Unfortunately there is no approved antidote for either of these toxins but they are very rare and expensive. Both of them cause a very horrible death.

Hopefully you have learned something from this article about either Botulinum or Polonium and if you would like to know more then feel free to research them. There are lots of sources about them both and you can easily find some information about them.