astronomy

The Universe

By Jay Dayton

The universe is a mysterious place - scientists know little about the furthest reaches of outer space. The origins of everything as we know it - us, planets, galaxies - it all began somewhere. Ancient civilizations created mythical gods to explain the unknown; however, with science and technology growing rapidly, our viewpoints have begun to change. Recently, a widespread theory has developed - The Big Bang Theory.

It says that 13.8 billion years ago, everything as we know it was created in a violent explosion. Most explosions produce heat, only this explosion was roughly 9 times hotter than the Sun’s core. The universe was still too hot for protons and neutrons (which are parts of an atom) to form. In a few milliseconds, the universe had rapidly expanded, and before long, it became cooler. This resulted in the first atoms, hydrogen and helium, forming.

Hydrogen and helium are the simplest and most abundant atoms in the universe, so abundant because they are the main elements in stars. With the creation of hydrogen and helium, the first stars and galaxies were born. After the formation of the first star, dust and gas were thrown out, and this collected to form the beginning of planets, and eventually life.

However, the end of the universe may not be so violent. Even though there are masses of hydrogen and helium to burn, nothing lasts forever, and eventually, these will disappear. With no new stars forming, all stars will explode, then collapse into a white dwarf. The universe will be glittered with white dwarfs - the remnants of stars. Over trillions of years, when the burning core of a star has finally cooled to the freezing temperature of space, it will give off no more light or heat (this is known as a black dwarf).

One thing in the universe, it seems, can last forever. A black hole. Swallowing everything in their path, they may wipe out matter once and for all. But everything has an end, and even black holes must evaporate. When they do, absolutely nothing will be left behind, apart from several light particles (photons) dotted around the universe.

However, this is not happening anytime soon, so there is no need to worry. Humans will probably have developed the technologies to survive these events. And to put this into perspective, the universe has existed for just 13 billion years, a mere fraction of the trillions of trillions of years to come.

These facts are also just theories from the evidence we already have. We may never know the true beginnings, and we will never know the true fate of the universe.

Space Exploration Technology - What do they use?

By Marcus Kaniewski 8S

In modern day life space exploration is a very big thing that is currently going on and it is also very important, but companies like SpaceX & NASA don’t just don’t just send rockets up to space and collect data, there is lots of cool technology that they use, which you are about to find out about. From telescopes to space probes, modern day space technology just keeps improving and developing.

Rovers

A rover (or sometimes planetary rover) is a planetary surface exploration device designed to move across the solid surface of a planet or other planetary mass celestial bodies. Some rovers have been designed as land vehicles to transport members of a human spaceflight crew; others have been partially or fully autonomous robots. Rovers are typically created to land on another planet (other than Earth) via a lander-style spacecraft, asked to collect information about the terrain, and to take crust samples such as dust, soil, rocks, and even liquids. They are essential tools in space exploration.

The Space Probe

A space probe is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit Earth, but instead, explores further into outer space. A space probe may approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or enter interstellar space. The space agencies of the USSR (now Russia and Ukraine), the United States, the European Union, Japan, China, India, and Israel have collectively launched probes to several planets and moons of the Solar System, as well as to a number of asteroids and comets. Approximately 15 missions are currently operational. One of the most common pobes known is Voyager 1.

LISA: Laser Interferometer Space Antenna

The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) is a mission led by the European Space Agency to detect and accurately measure gravitational waves (tiny ripples in the fabric of space-time) from astronomical sources. LISA would be the first dedicated space-based gravitational wave detector. It aims to measure gravitational waves directly by using laser interferometry. The LISA concept has a constellation of three spacecraft arranged in an equilateral triangle with sides 2.5 million km long, flying along an Earth-like heliocentric orbit. The distance between the satellites is precisely monitored to detect a passing gravitational wave.

The International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit. The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada). The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi) by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft. It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), which is operated by Russia, and the United States Orbital Segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024, but had previously proposed using elements of the Russian segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. As of December 2018, the station is expected to operate until 2030.

The Hubble Space Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope but it is one of the largest and most versatile, well known both as a vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. Hubble features a 2.4-meter (7.9 ft) mirror, and its four main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as determining the rate of expansion of the universe.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Launched in 2005 by NASA, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is currently orbiting Mars, studying the history of water on the planet. It's analyzing geographical features like canyons that might have been created by water, as well as using a spectrometer to analyze the chemical composition of the Martian surface. Its HiRISE camera can spy objects as "small as a dinner table," according to NASA, and it has even captured images of the three Martian rovers that are currently rolling (or parked) on the Martian regolith. Many of the discoveries about Martian water history and weather are due to the MRO, as are any number of breathtaking shots of the planet's surface. Above, a picture that the MRO snapped of a rarely-seen Martian avalanche. This just gives you a small insight into all of the different space technologies that companies like SpaceX, NASA, Virgin Galactic, Virgin Orbit, and The SpaceShip Company use. There are so many more out there so why don’t you google some! These technologies just keep evolving and evolving meaning we can get further in space, everything is important, from The Hubble Telescope to SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket everything is useful.

This just gives you a small insight into what space technologies they use, there are loads more, and I mean loads more, so feel free to research online about what they use! These technologies are also very important as without them, it would make space exploration a lot harder, but it’s up to the big space companies to design them and keep upgrading them.

SpaceShipTwo

By Marcus Kaniewski 8S

SpaceShipTwo is Virgin Galactic's latest spacecraft that they have developed, and they are also working on a SpaceShipThree. In this article I will be covering what Virgin Galactic is and their mission and what SpaceShipTwo is as well as what SpaceShipThree will be!

What Is Virgin Galactic?

Virgin Galactic in partnership with Virgin Orbit and The SpaceShip Company’s mission is to make commercial space travel flights possible, from taking people to tour space to flying sub-orbital flight to make travelling quicker, Virgin Galactic's mission is a project like never seen before. As you might have guessed Sir Richard Brandson heads it up as head of the “Virgin” chain. Commercial flights have not started yet but over 603 flights worth of tickets have been sold each ticket at approximately £250,000 and are due to rise. Nearly all of the flights have been reserved with future astronauts and virgin have received over £80 million worth of deposits. Virgin also have a new building underway which we all thought would never happen: ‘The Commercial Spaceport’ and yes it will act like a normal working airport in the future

So What Actually Is SpaceShipTwo?

SpaceShipTwo (SS2) is an air-launched suborbital spaceplane type designed for space tourism. It is manufactured by The Spaceship Company, SpaceShipTwo is carried to its launch altitude by a Scaled Composites: White Knight Two, before being released to fly on into the upper atmosphere powered by its rocket engine. It then glides back to Earth and performs a conventional runway landing. SpaceShipTwo’s capacity will be eight people — six passengers and two pilots. SpaceShipTwo's crew cabin is 3.7m long and 2.3m in diameter. The wing span is 8.2m, the length is 18m and the tail height is 4.6m. SpaceShipTwo uses a feathered re entry system, feasible due to the low speed of re entry. In contrast, orbital spacecraft re-enter at orbital speeds, closer to 25,000 km/h (16,000 mph), using heat shields. SpaceShipTwo is furthermore designed to re-enter the atmosphere at any angle. It will decelerate through the atmosphere, switching to a gliding position at an altitude of 24 km (15 mi), and will take 25 minutes to glide back to the spaceport.

What About It’s Engine?

SpaceShipTwo uses a type of engine called RocketMotorTwo The second-generation RocketMotorTwo engine is a variant of the earlier SNC basic design, but is fueled by polyamide plastic fuel, while continuing to use the same nitrous oxide oxidizer. The second-generation engine is now made in-house by Virgin Galactic rather than by SNC. By December 2012, 15 full-scale tests had been successfully conducted, and additional ground tests continued into March 2013.] In June 2012, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a rocket testing permit to Scaled Composites, allowing it to begin SS2 test flights powered by RocketMotorTwo; the first such powered flight took place on 29 April 2013. The engine produces 60,000 pounds-force (270 kN) of thrust.

The Set Back

SpaceShipTwo could and can still reach up to 4,000 km/h and a max altitude of 14,000 meters which is equivalent to 46,000 feet and 2 have been made in all time. But then Virgin Galactic suffered a mass set back. On October 31, 2014, the VSS Enterprise (the first SpaceShipTwo to be made), a SpaceShipTwo experimental spaceflight test vehicle, suffered a catastrophic in-flight breakup during a test flight and crashed in the Mojave Desert near Cantil, California. Co-pilot Michael Alsbury was killed and pilot Peter Siebold was seriously injured. The subsequent inquiry by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded that the breakup was the result of the premature activation by Alsbury of the air brake device used for atmospheric re-entry. The board also cited inadequate design safeguards, poor pilot training and lack of rigorous oversight by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as important factors in the accident.

What Happened?

On the day of the accident, Enterprise was performing a test flight, in which it was to be dropped from the WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft, VMS Eve, after taking off from the Mojave Air and Space Port. The test flight was the aircraft's first powered flight in nine months, and was to include the first flight testing of a new, more powerful and steadier-thrust hybrid rocket engine whose fuel grain was composed of nylon instead of rubber. The flight was the aircraft's 55th, and its 35th free flight. VSS Enterprise was piloted by Peter Siebold and Michael Alsbury. According to the NTSB briefing, SpaceShipTwo dropped from the mother ship and fired its new hybrid rocket engine normally. About eleven seconds later, the space plane violently broke apart, substantially giving the appearance of an explosion, and creating a 35-mile (56 km) long debris field. Witnesses reported seeing a parachute before the aircraft crashed. The co-pilot, Michael Alsbury, was killed in the crash, and the pilot, Peter Siebold, survived with serious injuries and was transported to Antelope Valley Hospital in nearby Lancaster. The carrier aircraft, VMS Eve, landed safely.

SpaceShipThree?

Luckily Virgin recovered from this potentially fatal setback and started construction on the second SpaceShipTwo and was completed on 19 February 2016 with it’s first test flight on 13 December 2018. However, Virgin also announced plans for a SpaceShipThree for suborbital commercial travel around the world even though SpaceShipTwo only enters actual space for approximately 3 seconds currently (although it will eventually tour space). There are also discussions going around for a SpaceShipFour but nothing has been revealed nor confirmed as of writing this.

Hopefully you have learned a thing or two from reading this. It only gives you a small insight into what actually is going on inside Virgin. Also remember to keep researching as maybe at the time of reading this SpaceShipFour will be in testing SpaceShipFive in concept and even SpaceShipTwo and SpaceShipThree operating commercially!