Geo-Glossary

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The definitions provided in this glossary are specific to the geographic context in which the terms are used.

To add a term to this glossary, please see the form at the bottom of this page.

A

absolute location. The location of a point on Earth’s surface that can be expressed by a grid reference (e.g., by latitude and longitude).

acid precipitation. Any form of precipitation, including rain, fog, and snow, that is more acidic than normal. Acid precipitation is determined by its pH level; the lower the pH, the more acidic and damaging it is.

advocacy group. See stakeholder.

aggregate. A coarse material that includes gravel, crushed stone, and sand. The major component in concrete and asphalt, it is generally used in construction and is the most heavily mined material in the world.

alternative energy source. An alternative to such conventional energy sources as fossil fuels and nuclear power. Common alternative energy sources include solar, wind, hydrogen, fuel cell, and tidal power.

annotated map. A map that includes a collection of notes about a specific location or an event that happened at a specific location. See also map.

aquifer. A large, natural reservoir underground. arable land. Land that can be used for growing crops. It is rich in nutrients, has a fresh water supply, and is located in a suitable climate.

Assembly of First Nations (AFN). A national representative organization of the First Nations in Canada. Formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood, it became the Assembly of First Nations in 1982. Each band council in the country elects a chief to participate in an annual general assembly of the AFN. A national chief is elected every three years by the Chiefs in-Assembly.

atmosphere. A gaseous mass of air surrounding a celestial body, such as Earth.

B

band. Defined by the Indian Act, in part, as “a body of Indians … for whose use and benefit in common, lands … have been set apart”. Each band has its own governing band council, usually consisting of a chief and several councillors. The members of the band usually share common values, traditions, and practices rooted in their language and ancestral heritage. Today, many bands prefer to be known as First Nations. See also First Nations.

band councils. See band.

Basel Convention. The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal is a United Nations convention, adopted in 1989, to protect human health and the environment against adverse effects of hazardous waste by reducing hazardous waste generation and restricting and regulating its cross-border movement.

bias. An opinion, preference, prejudice, or inclination that limits an individual’s or group’s ability to make fair, objective, or accurate judgments.

bioaccumulation. The process by which chemicals (e.g., mercury, chemicals from pesticides) collect in organisms in progressively higher concentrations towards the top of the food chain.

biodiversity. The variety of species (types) of organisms at all levels of classification in an ecosystem, and the variety of ecosystems, globally or within a specific geographic region. See also ecosystem.

biosphere. The portion of Earth (air, land, water) that supports living organisms.

birth rate. The number of live births per thousand people in one year

black market. Economic activity outside of the legal government-regulated system; the illegal buying and selling of goods, services, and/or currencies.

boreal forest. A zone dominated by coniferous trees. Canada’s largest biome, occupying 35 per cent of the total Canadian land area and 77 per cent of Canada’s total forest land, is boreal forest.

branch plant. Historically, a factory or office established in Canada by an American parent company whose head office remained in the United States. Branch plants were created primarily to avoid tariffs. See also multinational corporation.

built environment. Features of the human environment that were created or altered by people (e.g., cities, transportation systems, buildings, parks, recreational facilities, landfill sites). See also human environment.

bylaw. A law or rule passed by a municipal council and applicable to that municipality.

C

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. A part of the Constitution Act, 1982, the Charter guarantees Canadians fundamental freedoms as well as various rights, including democratic, mobility, legal, and equality rights. It recognizes the multicultural heritage of Canadians, and protects official language rights and the rights of Aboriginal Canadians.

Canadian Shield. A vast landform region that extends from the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River to the Arctic Ocean, covering almost half of Canada. It is characterized by Precambrian rock that is rich in minerals.

carbon offset. A way in which an emitter of greenhouse gases can prevent its emissions from increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations by paying someone else to reduce, avoid, or absorb an equal quantity of emissions.

cardinal directions. The four major points of the compass – N, S, E, and W. Cardinal directions can be subdivided into intermediate directions – NE, SE, NW, SW. Cardinal and intermediate directions are elements of mapping.

census metropolitan area (CMA). A statistical area classification, a CMA consists of one or more neighbouring municipalities situated around a major urban core. A CMA must have a total population of at least 100,000, of which 50,000 or more live in the urban core. As of 2011, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, which range in size from Toronto (the largest) to Peterborough (the smallest).

chief. One of many types of leaders, informal and formal, in First Nations, Métis, and Inuit societies, governments, and traditional governance structures, past and present. Currently, under the Indian Act, there is an imposed governing system on reserves requiring each band to elect a chief and up to 12 councillors for a term of two years. See also Indian Act.

choropleth map. A map in which graded colours are used to illustrate the average values for or quantities of something (e.g., population density, quality of life indicators, fresh water resources) in specific areas. See also map.

citizen. An inhabitant of a city, town, or country; also, a person who is legally entitled to exercise the rights and freedoms of the country in which he or she lives.

citizenship. An understanding of the rights of citizens within various communities (local, national, and global), and of the roles, responsibilities, and actions associated with these rights.

civics. A branch of politics that focuses on the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. See also citizenship.

climate. The average weather conditions of an area over an extended period of time. See also weather.

climate change. A significant change in the average state of Earth’s climate that persists for several decades or more. It can be caused either by natural factors or by human activities that alter the composition of the atmosphere or change major characteristics of the land surface, as when forests are replaced by farmland. Climate change can affect a number of weather characteristics, such as temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns, as well as the occurrence of severe weather.

climate graph. A graph that combines average monthly temperature (presented as a line graph) and precipitation data (presented as a bar graph) for a particular place.

clustered settlement pattern. A closely spaced grouping of houses, towns, or villages.

colonization. A practice of domination that involves the political, economic, and/or cultural subjugation of one people by another.

command economy. An economic system in which the government owns and controls all facets of the economy. See also economic system.

commodity. A good or service purchased or used by consumers.

common good. The well-being of all or most of the people in a community or society as well as of components of the natural environment. Factors such as peace, justice, economic fairness, and respect for human rights and the environment contribute to the common good.

community/communities. A group of people who have shared histories, culture, beliefs, and/or values. Communities can also be identified on the basis of shared space, ethnicity, religion, and/ or socio-economic status. A person may belong to more than one community (e.g., a school community, town, ethnic group, nation, etc.).

consumerism. An ideology that encourages people to acquire goods and services in increasing amounts.

Crown land. Land belonging to the government, whether in the national or provincial jurisdiction.

culture. The customary beliefs, values, social forms, and material traits of an ethnic, religious, or social group.

D

death rate. The number of deaths per thousand people in one year.

deforestation. The destruction and removal of a forest and its undergrowth by natural or human means.

democracy. A form of government in which laws are made by a direct vote of the citizens (direct democracy) or by representatives on their behalf (indirect democracy). In an indirect, or representative, democracy such as Canada, elected representatives vote on behalf of their constituents.

demographics. Statistics describing the characteristics of an area’s population, including those relating to age, sex, income, and education.

desertification. The process by which arable land becomes desert, as a result of factors such as a decline in average rainfall over time, deforestation, and/or poor agricultural practices.

digital representations. Computer-based representations of the world in which spatial characteristics are represented in either 2D or 3D format. These representations can be accessed and applied using online mapping software or interactive atlases.

disparity. The unequal distribution of funds, food, or other commodities or resources among groups, regions, or nations. Indicators of economic wealth are often used when assessing disparity.

diversity. The presence of a wide range of human qualities and attributes within a group, organization, or society. The dimensions of diversity include, but are not limited to, ancestry, culture, ethnicity, gender identity, language, physical and intellectual ability, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, and socio-economic status.

doubling time. The length of time it takes for a given population to double. It is often used to measure a country’s population growth rate.

drainage basin. The area drained by a river system.

E

ecological footprint. The impact of human activities on the environment, measured in terms of biologically productive land and water that is used to produce the goods people consume and to assimilate the waste they generate. An ecological footprint can be calculated at the individual, community, national, or global level.

economic indicator. A statistical measure that gives an indication of the performance of and trends in an economy.

economic sector. A segment of the economy that is characterized by similar types of activities, products, and/or services (e.g., by resource extraction, manufacturing, etc.). See also knowledge-based industries; manufacturing sector; primary industries; service-based industries.

economic system. The way in which a particular society produces, distributes, and consumes various goods and services. See also command economy; market economy; mixed economy; traditional economy.

economy. The system of production and consumption of various commodities and services in a community, region, or country, or globally.

ecosystem. A self-regulating system, created by the interaction between living organisms and their environment, through which energy and materials are transferred.

ecotourism. Travel to fragile or pristine areas, often seen as low impact and as an alternative to standard commercial travel.

ecumene. A space on Earth’s surface that is occupied by permanent human settlement.

Elder. A man or woman whose wisdom about spirituality, culture, and life is recognized and affirmed by the community. Not all Elders are “old”. The Aboriginal community and individuals will normally seek the advice and assistance of Elders on various traditional, as well as contemporary, issues.

elevation. The height of something above a reference level, especially above sea level.

emigration. The act of leaving one country or region to settle in another.

entrepreneur. A person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a business venture.

environment. Everything, both natural and human-made, that surrounds us.

equality. A condition in which all people are treated the same way, regardless of individual differences. See also equity.

equator. Latitude zero degrees; an imaginary line running east and west around the globe and dividing it into two equal parts.

equity. Fair, inclusive, and respectful treatment of all people. Equity does not mean treating all people the same, without regard for individual differences. See also equality.

erosion. The wearing down and carrying away of material from exposed surfaces by water, wind, or ice.

ethnicity. The shared national, ethnocultural, racial, linguistic, and/or religious heritage or background of a group of people, whether or not they live in their country of origin.

F

fair trade. An approach to international trade, with the goal of social and environmental sustainability and fair compensation to producers

fertility rate. The average number of live births for a woman in her childbearing years in the population of a specific area.

field study. A hands-on learning experience in the outdoors. Field studies can be open ended or organized for a specific purpose or inquiry.

First Nations. The term used to refer to the original inhabitants of Canada, except the Inuit. A term that came into common usage in the 1970s to replace the word “Indian”, which many found offensive. The term “First Nation” has been adopted to replace the word “band” in the names of communities. See also band.

flow map. A map that shows the movement of objects or people from one location to another. See also map.

flow resource. A resource that is neither renewable nor non-renewable, but must be used when and where it occurs (e.g., running water, wind, sunlight).

fossil fuel. A non-renewable energy source that is formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals (e.g., coal, natural gas, petroleum). See also non-renewable resource

free trade. Trade, including international and interprovincial trade, where tariffs are not applied to imports, and exports are not subsidized.

Fujita scale. Also knows as the Fujita-Pearson scale or the F-scale, a scale used to measure the intensity of a tornado based on the amount of damage it has caused. The scale ranges from an F0, the lowest intensity, to F5, the highest.

G

genocide. The planned, systematic destruction of a national, racial, political, religious, or ethnic group.

geodetic datum/geodetic system. A coordinate system and a set of reference points used to locate places on Earth.

geographic information system (GIS). A technological system that allows for the digital manipulation of spatial data, such as those relating to land use, physical features, and the impact of disasters. Users of GIS can input data and create and analyse tables, maps, and graphs in order to solve problems relating to a specific area of land and/or water. See also spatial technologies.

geospatial technologies. Technologies that support the use of geographic data. The data can be represented in various forms, such as maps, graphs, or photographs of a site. Examples of spatial technologies include geographic information systems (GIS), the global positioning system (GPS), and remote sensing. See also geographic information system; global positioning system; remote sensing.

global commons. Earth’s resources, such as the oceans or the atmosphere, that have no political boundaries because they are part of systems that circulate throughout the world.

globalization. A process, accelerated by modern communications technology, that multiplies and strengthens the economic, cultural, and financial interconnections among many regions of the world

global positioning system (GPS). A navigation and positioning system that uses satellites and receivers to provide highly accurate location coordinates for positions on or above Earth’s surface. See also spatial technologies.

Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands. The area that surrounds the lower Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, including the most densely populated portions of Ontario and Quebec. This area of gently rolling hills and flat plains provides an excellent physical base for agriculture and settlement and is often described as the country’s heartland.

grid. A pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, which helps determine absolute location and assists in the analysis of distribution patterns. The term also refers to a coordinate plane that contains an x-axis (horizontal) and a y-axis (vertical) and is used to describe the location of a point.

gross domestic product (GDP). The value of all the goods and services produced in a country in one year.

groundwater. Water below the surface of the land. Often an aquifer, groundwater can also take the form of underground streams or lakes or be held in pores in the soil. Groundwater is constantly in motion as part of the hydrological cycle.

H

habitat. The place where an organism lives and that provides it with the food, water, shelter, and space it needs to survive.

heritage. The legacy passed down from previous generations, including cultural traditions, art, literature, and buildings.

hierarchy. A system in which groups or individuals are ranked above or below one another.

Human Development Index. The results of an annual ranking of countries with respect to life expectancy, educational achievement, standard of living, and other measures of development.

human environment. The built features of an area and the interactions among these features and/or between these features and the natural environment. See also built environment.

human rights. Rights that recognize the dignity and worth of every person, and provide for equal rights and opportunities without discrimination, regardless of race, ancestry, place of origin, colour, ethnic origin, citizenship, creed, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, family status, disability, or other similar factors.

hydrosphere. The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of the earth.

I

I=PAT. A formula used to measure the impact (I) on the environment of three factors – population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T).

identity. How one sees oneself within various communities, local to global.

ideology. A set of related beliefs, ideas, and attitudes that characterizes the thinking of a particular group or society.

immigration. The act of coming to a different country or region in order to take up permanent residence.

Indian. Under the Indian Act, “a person who pursuant to this Act is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian”. Outside this specific legal meaning, the term is often seen as outdated and offensive, and the term “First Nation” is preferred. See also First Nations.

Indian Act. Federal legislation that regulates Indians and reserves and sets out certain federal government powers and responsibilities towards First Nations and their reserved lands. The first Indian Act was passed in 1876. Since then, the act has undergone numerous amendments, revisions, and re-enactments. See also Indian.

indigenous species. A native species – one that originates or naturally occurs in an area.

industrialization. The development of industry, primarily manufacturing, on a very wide scale.

industrial society. A society whose economy is based predominantly on large-scale production using technology and power-driven machinery and that is characterized by broad divisions of labour.

infant mortality rate. The death rate of children between birth and one year of age in a given area, expressed per 1,000 live births.

infographic. A graphic visual representation of information and/or data. It is usually an image with accompanying information or data.

infrastructure. The networks of transportation, communications, education, and other public services that are required to sustain economic and societal activities. interest group. See stakeholder.

intergovernmental organization. An agency established by a formal agreement between member national governments (e.g., the United Nations, the Commonwealth).

intermediate directions. See cardinal directions.

International Court of Justice (ICJ). Established under the United Nations Charter in 1945, the ICJ is the primary judicial organ of the UN. It settles disputes brought to it by states and gives opinions on legal questions submitted to it by UN or other agencies.

International Criminal Court (ICC). A permanent, treaty-based, international criminal court established in 2002 to help end impunity for the perpetrators of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community, including war crimes and genocide. Unlike the ICJ, the ICC is not part of the United Nations system.

Inuit. Aboriginal people in northern Canada, living mainly in Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, northern Quebec, and Labrador. The Inuit are not covered by the Indian Act.

invasive species. An organism, plant, animal, fungus, or bacterium that is not native to a region and has negative effects on the new environment.

issue. A topic or question of concern on which people may take different points of view.

K

knowledge-based industries. The part of the economy that is knowledge-based, such as government, scientific research, education, and information technology. Also referred to as the quaternary sector. See also economic sector.

Kyoto Protocol. An international agreement created under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, this protocol committed major industrial nations to reducing their annual carbon emissions to below 1990 levels, while providing financial supports to developing nations to encourage them to eventually follow suit. Canada ratified the accord in 2002 but announce its withdrawal from it in 2011.

L

labour union. A group of workers who have come together to pursue common goals, such as better working conditions. Union leaders bargain with employers and negotiate labour contracts.

land claims. A First Nation, Métis, or Inuit assertion of rights over lands and resources, and of self-government, which can also concern Aboriginal and treaty title and rights. When resolved, the final agreements often outline rights, responsibilities, and/or benefits.

landfill. A method of waste disposal, in which solid waste is collected and transferred to a set location, where it is buried. In Canada, there are provincial regulations governing landfill sites, with the goal of minimizing their impact on health and the environment.

landform. A natural physical feature of a land surface (e.g., a mountain, plateau, valley, plain).

land reclamation. The creation of “new” land from existing riverbeds or seas. Also, the reclamation or rehabilitation of land that was previously disturbed, often by resource extraction. See also rehabilitation.

land use. Ways in which land is used by people (e.g., for commercial, industrial, residential, transportation, or recreational purposes). In mapping, different land uses are conventionally represented by specific colours.

latitude. The distance north and south of the equator, measured in degrees. See also equator.

LGBTQ. The initialism used to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people. A broader range of identities is also sometimes implied by this initialism, or they may be represented more explicitly by LGBTTIQ, which stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, transsexual or two-spirited, intersex, and queer or questioning.

life expectancy. The average number of years that a person is expected to live. Life expectancy varies by historical period, gender, region, and other factors.

linear settlement pattern. A narrow grouping of houses or settlements whose placement is determined by features such as a river, road, or valley.

lines (mapping). Lines are used in mapping, including GIS, to represent linear features such as roads, railways, rivers, shipping lines, flight paths, and topography.

liquefaction. A natural phenomenon that occurs when soil particles that are partially saturated lose their strength and flows like liquid, usually as a result of shaking during an earthquake. Liquefaction is responsible for a great deal of the damage that has been caused by earthquakes around the world.

literacy rate. The percentage of the adult population who can read and write.

lithosphere. The solid upper layer of Earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle.

longitude. The distance east and west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees. See also prime meridian.

M

manufacturing. The process of making goods, either by machine or by hand.

manufacturing sector. Industries that convert raw materials into finished industrial products (e.g., the auto industry). Also referred to as the secondary sector or secondary industries. See also economic sector.

map. A visual representation of natural and/or human characteristics. Maps can be used in various forms – print, digital, and online interactive – and may be annotated with textboxes to provide more information. See also annotated map; choropleth map; flow map; thematic map; topographic map.

market economy. An economic system in which privately owned corporations control the production and distribution of most goods and services. See also economic system.

megaproject. A large-scale investment project, usually costing more than $1 billion.

Métis. People of mixed First Nations and European ancestry. Métis history and culture draws on diverse ancestral origins, such as Scottish, Irish, French, Ojibwe, and Cree.

migration. The permanent shift of people from one country, region, or place to another for economic, political, environmental, religious, or other reasons. Also, the movement, often seasonal, of animals from one area to another (e.g., for food or breeding or because of loss of habitat).

Montreal Protocol. The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, which came into force in 1989, was designed to reduce the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances in order to protect Earth’s ozone layer.

multiculturalism. The acceptance of cultural pluralism as a positive and distinctive feature of society. In Canada, multiculturalism is government policy, and includes initiatives at all levels of government to support cultural pluralism.

multinational corporation/transnational corporation. A corporation that has its headquarters in one country and manages production or delivers services in other countries.

N

nationalism. The ideology that promotes devotion to the collective interests and cultural identity of a nation.

natural disaster. A catastrophic event caused by Earth’s physical processes that affects human settlement. Examples include the North American ice storm of 1998, the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012. See also natural hazard.

natural hazard. A natural event or feature, created by Earth’s natural processes, that poses a threat to human safety. Examples of natural hazards include blizzards and ice storms; earthquakes; floods; landslides; tornadoes, cyclones, and hurricanes; tsunamis; icebergs; and volcanoes. See also natural disaster.

natural phenomena. Physical processes and events pertaining to things such as weather, wave action, soil build-up, or plant growth.

natural resource. Something found in nature that people find useful or valuable. See also flow resource; non-renewable resource; renewable resource.

non-governmental organization (NGO). An organization that operates independently of governments, typically providing a social or public service (e.g., Doctors without Borders, Free the Children, Nature Conservancy).

non-renewable resource. A resource that is limited and cannot be replaced once it is used up (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas).

O

opinion. A belief or conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof.

P

Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire is a ring of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean that result from subduction of oceanic plates beneath the continental plates. Most of the Earth's volcanoes and earthquake activity take place around the Pacific Ring of Fire because it is the location of most of the Earth's subduction zones.

peacekeeping. Intervention, often by international forces (military, police, and/or civilian) in countries or regions that are experiencing conflict, with the goal of maintaining peace and security and helping create a social and political environment that leads to lasting peace. International peacekeeping missions are generally conducted under the auspices of the United Nations.

per capita income. The average amount of money earned per person per year in a country or region.

physical feature. An aspect of a place or area that derives from the physical environment (e.g., water bodies – lakes, rivers, oceans, seas, swamps; landforms – mountains, valleys, hills, plateaus; soil types; vegetation).

physical region. A geographic area characterized by similar landforms, climate, soil, and vegetation.

plate tectonics. The movement of the thin outer layer of Earth’s crust on which the oceans and continents rest. This movement, which is driven mainly by convection currents in material beneath the crust, by gravity, and by Earth’s rotation, results in the buckling (fold mountains), tearing (earthquakes), and erupting (volcanoes) of Earth’s surface. See also tectonic forces.

points (mapping). Individual marks on a map, including GIS maps, that provide the location of geographic features that can be represented by a single point (e.g., a mountain peak, a city on a map of the world, washrooms on a trail, point of interest on a road).

political region. A geographical area that shares a government and has its own leaders and sets of laws.

polygons (mapping). Irregular 2D shapes used in mapping, including GIS maps, to represent the boundaries of geographical features that cover a particular area of Earth’s surface (e.g., lakes, national park boundaries, buildings, or land uses). Polygons can show perimeters and area.

population density. The average number of people in a particular area, calculated by dividing the number of people by a unit of space (e.g., per square kilometre).

population distribution. The way in which a population is spread across a geographical area.

population pyramid. A horizontal bar graph that indicates the number of people in different age groups and the balance between males and females in the population. These graphs can be used for a city, country, or other political region.

primary industries/primary sector. Industries that harvest or extract raw materials or natural resources (e.g., agriculture, ranching, forestry, fishing, mining). See also economic sector.

prime meridian. Longitude zero degrees; an imaginary line running north and south, which by international agreement runs through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. See also longitude.

pull factors. In migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental attractions of new areas that draw people away from their previous locations.

push factors. In migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental forces that drive people from their previous locations to search for new ones.

Q

quality of life. Human well-being, as measured by social indicators, including education, environmental well-being, health, and living standards. See also Human Development Index.

quaternary sector. See knowledge-based industries.

R

raster. A spatial data model in which pixels that contain an attribute value and location coordinates are organized on a grid. Examples of raster data include digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, and scanned maps.

refugee. A person who is forced to flee for safety from political upheaval or war to a foreign country.

region. An area of Earth having some characteristic or characteristics that distinguish it from other areas.

rehabilitation. A process in which people attempt to restore land damaged by a natural event or by human activity, such as primary industry, back to its natural state (e.g., an old quarry being turned into a park).

remote sensing. The gathering of information about Earth from a distance (e.g., through aerial photographs or data collected by instruments aboard satellites or aircraft).

renewable resource. A resource that can be regenerated if used carefully (e.g., fish, timber).

reserves. Lands set aside by the federal government for the use and benefit of a specific band or First Nation. The Indian Act provides that this land cannot be owned by individual band or First Nation members.

residential schools. In Canada, federally funded, church-run educational institutions for First Nations, Inuit, and Métis children. These schools were particularly numerous in the first half of the twentieth century, although some continued into the 1990s. Aboriginal children were removed from their families and sent to boarding (residential) schools as part of a government policy of assimilation. Other countries, such as Australia and the United States, also subjected Aboriginal children to residential schools.

resource recovery. The extraction of resources from materials that have been discarded (e.g., from recycled materials or mine tailings).

resources. The machines, workers, money, land, raw materials, and other things that can be used to produce goods and services.

Richter scale. A scale used to measure the magnitude of – that is, the amount of energy released by – an earthquake, based on information gathered by a seismograph. The Richter scale is logarithmic, so that each whole number jumps signifies a tenfold increase. So a level 5 earthquake is ten times greater than a level 4 earthquake.

rights. Entitlements recognized and protected by law.

ring of fire. In Ontario, an area north of Thunder Bay that contains large deposits of chromite and other valuable minerals. There is some controversy as to how best to develop the deposits, with issues related to First Nations rights and economic development as well as the environment needing to be resolved.

S

Saffir-Simpson scale. A scale used to measure the sustained wind speed of a hurricane and to estimates its potential damage. The scale runs from category 1 to category 5, with category 5 hurricanes being the strongest.

scale. On a map, the measurement that represents an actual distance on Earth’s surface. Scale can be indicated on a map by a ratio, a linear representation, or a statement.

scarcity. A fundamental concept in economics, the issue of scarcity arises because resources are limited but people’s wants and needs are potentially unlimited. All economic decisions need to take the scarcity of resources into account.

scattered settlement pattern. Settlement mainly in rural areas where houses are scattered in no apparent pattern. The amount of space between dwellings depends on the amount of land that is required to grow enough food for the family living in each dwelling.

scatter graph. A graph in which data pairs are plotted on a coordinate plane or grid as unconnected points. A scatter graph is useful for showing correlation (i.e., the extent to which one variable is related to another). See also grid.

secondary sector. See manufacturing sector.

service-based industries. That part of the economy that provides services (e.g., banking, retailing, education) rather than products. Also referred to as the tertiary sector. See also economic sector.

settlement pattern. The distribution and arrangement of individual buildings or of rural and urban centres (e.g., clustered, linear, scattered).

social justice. A concept based on the belief that each individual and group within a given society has a right to equal opportunity and civil liberties, and to exercise the social, educational, economic, institutional, and moral freedoms and responsibilities of that society.

social welfare programs. Government programs designed to help meet the personal, economic, emotional, and/or physical needs of citizens.

sovereignty. Independent control or authority over a particular area or territory.

stakeholder. A person, group, or organization that has an interest in or concern about something.

status Indian. See Indian.

stewardship. The concept that people’s decisions, choices, and actions can have a positive impact, supporting a healthy environment that is essential for all life. A healthy environment supports sustainable relationships among all of Earth’s living and non-living things.

subsistence farming. A type of farming in which livestock is raised and crops are cultivated for local food and energy requirements rather than for sale.

sustainability. Living within the limits of available resources. These resources may include Earth’s natural resources and/or the economic and human resources of a society. Sustainability also implies equitable distribution of resources and benefits, which requires an understanding of the interrelationships between natural environments, societies, and economies.

sustained yield management. Harvesting of a resource in which the amount extracted is managed so that the resource has time to regenerate itself.

system. Something made up of interconnected elements and processes that contribute to the whole (e.g., political systems, economic systems, natural systems).

T

tailings. Waste material left after a resource has been extracted during the mining process (e.g., the extraction of minerals from rocks, oil from the oil sands). Tailings are often toxic because of the processes used to separate the valuable materials from the waste.

tectonic forces. Forces caused by movements within or beneath Earth’s crust that can produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These forces result in the building up and tearing down of Earth’s physical features (e.g., mountains, valleys, trenches). See also plate tectonics.

TEK. See traditional ecological knowledge.

tertiary industries. See service-based industries.

thematic map. A map depicting specific characteristics for a given area (e.g., a political map of the world, a natural resource map of Ontario, a map showing the destination of immigrants in early twentieth-century Canada). See also map.

topographic map. A map whose primary purpose is to show the relief of the land through the use of contour lines. It also uses symbols and colour to show a variety of built features. See also map.

traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Knowledge, practices, and beliefs relating to the environment that have been built up by First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples over generations through experience, observation, and close contact with nature.

traditional economy. An economic system in which decisions are made on the basis of customs, beliefs, religion, and habit. Traditional economies are often based on hunting, fishing, and/or subsistence agriculture. See also economic system.

transnational corporation. See multinational corporation.

treaty. A formal agreement between two or more parties. In Canada, treaties are often formal historical agreements between the Crown and Aboriginal peoples; these treaties are often interpreted differently by federal, provincial, and Aboriginal governments.

treaty rights. Rights specified in a treaty. In Canada, the rights of Aboriginal people to hunt and fish in traditional territory and to use and occupy reserves are typical treaty rights. This concept can have different meanings depending on context and the perspective of the user.

U

United Nations. An intergovernmental organization formed in 1945 to promote peace and economic development.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A document adopted by the United Nations in 1948 setting out the basic rights and freedoms of all people.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system. An international locational reference system that depicts Earth’s three-dimensional surface in a relatively accurate two-dimensional way. Due to extreme projection distortions at the poles, the UTM coordinate system does not include areas north of 84^o north latitude or 80^o south latitude.

urban heat island. A term used to describe the air mass over a large city that has a slightly higher average temperature than that of the surrounding air.

urbanization. A process in which there is an increase in the percentage of people living and/or working in urban places.

urban sprawl. The spread of a city over a relatively large area of land. The term has a negative connotation as a result of the stress on infrastructure and the environment associated with such expansion.

V

values. Personal or societal beliefs that govern a person’s behaviours and choices.

vector. A coordinate-based data model that represents geographic features as points, lines, and polygons. Different geographical features are expressed by different shapes. See also lines; points; polygons.

voting. The act of expressing an opinion by a show of hands or ballot, usually with the intent of electing a candidate to office or passing a resolution.

W

waste management. The handling (e.g., collection, disposal, reuse) of the waste products from human activity (e.g., sewage, garbage, e-waste).

weather. The conditions of the atmosphere, including temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity, and cloud cover, at a specific place and time. See also climate.

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