Before you begin any practical work it is important that you think carefully about being smart and staying safe in the laboratory. 

So here's an introduction to our rules:

There are two main rules to follow.

1. Know what you are doing in the laboratory. Read the instructions carefully before you start.

2. Always think of others and behave sensibly.

Other important rules to remember are:

1. Do not enter the laboratory unless you are with your teacher.

2. Never touch equipment in the laboratory unless you are told to use it.

3. Don't eat in the laboratory.

4. Always walk - never run.

5. Wear protective clothing - especially safety glasses.

6. Never taste chemicals.

7. Don't use paper to light Bunsen burners, and don't put burning things in the rubbish bin.

8. keep books, paper, long hair and clothing away from flames.

9. Always point test tubes away from people.

10. Check with your teacher on how to dispose of waste liquids and solids. Broken glass should be placed in a special bin.

11. If you spill something on your clothes wash it immediately with plenty of water. Tell you teacher.

12. Report all accidents and breakages to your teacher.

13. After heating equipment, let it cool down before picking it up. This will avoid burns.

14. Clean all equipment after use and put it back where you got it from. Clean your work bench if there is a spill and after doing experiments.

IF AN ACCIDENT DOES OCCUR, REPORT IT TO YOUR TEACHER.

Eye injuries can be caused by liquids splashing into your eyes during experiments. Always wear your safety glasses. Also never point a test tube towards your face or anyone else's. 

Poisoning can be caused by breathing in fumes during an experiment, eating chemicals or by spilling them onto your skin. Do not eat or drink in the lab. 

Cuts are caused by broken glass, so make sure any broken glass goes into the labelled bin.

Burns can be caused by touching hot equipment, or by spilling hot liquid when someone bumps you. Treat burns with cold running water. Serious burns can occur with a Bunsen burner. If this happens, tell your teacher at once.

Fires are always possible when using burners. It is essential to tie back long hair whenever you are using a burner.

Damage to clothing and skin can occur when chemicals especially corrosive liquids such as acids and alkalis, are spilt. If there is a spill, wash the area immediately with lots of water and send someone to tell the teacher. In the most serious cases you may need to use the safety shower.

Damage to the laboratory can occur when sinks become blocked with paper or solids, which can cause flooding if the taps are left running. The benches can also be scorched during heating. They can also be damaged by chemical spills, so wipe these up immediately.

Laboratory equipment

In the science lab you will find lots of different equipment. Before you can start doing experiments, you need to know what equipment is called and what it can be used for. You also need to know how to draw them as part of a scientific diagram.

Containers:

• Beaker

• Conical flask

• Round bottomed flask

• Test tube

• Measuring cylinder - for measuring volumes of liquids

• Evaporating basin - for heating liquids strongly

• Watch glass - for heating solutions and holding small amounts of solids

• Crucible, lid and pipeclay triangle - apparatus for heating solids to high temperatures. The pipeclay triangle is placed on top of a tripod.

For each piece of equipment listed- write the name, draw a scientific diagram and write what they are used for. 

Holding things:

• Test tube rack - the rack is used for holding test tubes and the pegs are used for drying test tubes

• Test tube holders

• Metal tongs - for holding small objects, especially when heating

• Metal stand

• Clamp

• Bosshead - for attaching clamp to stand

• Stand and clamp - for supporting apparatus

For each piece of equipment listed- write the name, draw a scientific diagram and write what they are used for. 

Heating apparatus:

• Bunsen burner

• Gauze mat - to spread the heat evenly

• Tripod

• Heatproof mat - to protect the bench

For each piece of equipment listed- write the name, draw a scientific diagram and write what they are used for. 

Other useful items:

• Dropper - for dispensing liquids one drop at a time

• Dropping bottle - for dispensing liquids

• Glass stirring rod

• Spatula - for picking up small amounts of solids

• Funnel - for filtering

• Test tube brush - for cleaning test tubes

For each piece of equipment listed- write the name, draw a scientific diagram and write what they are used for. 

As the gas flows through the rubber hose and into the burner, air is drawn in through the air hole. This mixture can then be ignited using a lit match placed at the top of the barrel to produce a flame. The flame can be controlled by turning the metal ring or collar. As the collar is turned the air hole is either opened or closed, which changes the mixture of gas and air. The more open the air hole, the more air is drawn in and the hotter the flame.

Air hole closed - yellow safety flame This yellow safety flame is easily visible.

Air hole open - blue heating flame This blue flame is hard to see, at times it can be almost invisible and because of this it can cause serious burns. 

Lighting the burner:

1. Place the burner on the side bench. Connect the gas hose to the gas tap.

2. Rotate the collar so the air hole is closed.

3. Light a match, switch on the gas, and bring the match close to but not over the top of the barrel. The gas should ignite.

4. Observe the flame with the air hole closed. 

5. Gradually open the air hole, watch carefully to see what happens to the flame.

Rules for safe use of the burner:

1. Keep the burner away from books, and away from the edge of the bench.

2. Always light the burner with the air hole closed.

3. Switch to the yellow safety flame when not heating.

4. The barrel of the burner may get very hot. If you have to move the burner, turn it off first. Hold it by the base or by the gas hose.

5. Check the gas is turned off properly when you have finished.

• Parallax error occurs when the measurement of an object's length is more or less than the true length because of your eye being positioned at an angle to the measurement markings. 

What is Meniscus?

• The meniscus of a liquid is the upward or downward curve seen at the top of a liquid in a container. The nature of curve whether upward (convex) or downward (concave) depends on the surface tension the liquid and its adhesion capacity to the wall of the container.

Concave Meniscus (See diagram A)

• A concave meniscus occurs when the molecules of liquid are strongly attracted to the container wall rather than to each other. In that case, liquid appears to ‘stick’ from the edges forming a concave shape.

Convex Meniscus (See diagram B)

• A convex meniscus appears when molecules of liquid are strongly attracted to each other rather than to the wall of container. Most liquids, including water, show a concave meniscus but a great example of a convex meniscus is liquid mercury in a glass container. It is to be noted that in some cases, the meniscus appears in a straight line instead of any curvature at all. For example, water in some plastic cylinders. No meniscus makes measuring very easy.

How to read a meniscus correctly

• You must get at eye-level with the meniscus to obtain an accurate reading. Pick up the glassware to bring it up to eye level or bend down to take a measurement.

1. Fair testing: 

• Finds relationships between factors/variables.

• A single variable is changed while keeping other variables the same. Any differences are said to be the result of the changed variable. 

2. Modelling: 

• Can be used to understand how a process works or to explain ideas or a concept. 

3. Pattern seeking: 

• Involves observing and recording natural events or carrying out experiments where the variables cannot easily be controlled. 

• In pattern seeking, it is important to note and record variables 

What are tables and graphs?

Tables and graphs are visual representations. They are used to organise information to show patterns and relationships. A graph shows this information by representing it as a shape. Researchers and scientists often use tables and graphs to report findings from their research. In newspapers, magazine articles, and on television they are often used to support an argument or point of view.  

The things that are changing in an experiment are called variables. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent, dependent, and controlled. 

Independant variables: 

• is the one that is changed by the scientist 

Dependant variables: 

• The dependent variables are the things that the scientist focuses his or her observations on to see how they respond to the change made to the independent variable. 

Controlled variables:

• Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant, and she or he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables. 

Variables on a graph 

The independent variable belongs on the x-axis (horizontal line) of the graph and the dependent variable belongs on the y-axis (vertical line).