Extended Strategies

Dunkhase (2003) developed the coupled-inquiry cycle to ease students into a collaborative, inquiry-based classroom. Coupled inquiry pairs an initial, teacher-guided investigation with a second, student-directed investigation. There are six steps to the cycle: 

1. Invitation to Inquiry: A hook to pique students’ curiosity about the concept being explored 

2. Guided Inquiry: An investigation into the concept that is more-or-less teacher-led 

3. Explore on Your Own: A chance for students to explore and ask questions about the materials for the investigation 

4. Open Inquiry: A student-directed investigation exploring questions raised during “Explore on Your Own” 

5. Inquiry Resolution: An exploration and evaluation of the conclusions reached after the students’ investigation 

6. Assessment: Formative and summative assessments of students’ learning 

Figure 3 illustrates the interrelationship of the steps. The coupled-inquiry cycle is a process, Dunkhase says, that gives teachers and students the structure necessary to realize the possibility of inquiry-based learning. Figure 3. The coupled-inquiry cycle (Dunkhase, 2003, p. 12) 

Decision making can be complicated, especially when more than one person is involved. The following process can be used to help small groups make sound and thoughtful decisions. 

1. Define the decision to be made. Agreeing on the decision to be made will focus a group’s discussion and clarify its ultimate goal. Students should discuss questions, such as “What is the assignment asking us to do” and “What problem are we trying to solve?” The group should then write a one-sentence description of the decision to be made. 

2. Generate possible options. The goal here is to think of as many different decisions as possible. To ensure that everyone in the group has a chance to contribute ideas, the group might try brainstorming, brainwriting, or carousel brainstorming. 

3. Establish criteria. Criteria are a way of determining whether a possible option might work. To be most effective, the criteria should focus on whether a decision is doable or realistic, whether it will help the group do its work effectively, and whether it will meet everyone’s needs. Students should list five criteria that they will use to choose the best decision, and then they should evaluate which criteria are most important and which are least important. Instructional Strategies 19 

4. Evaluate the options and choose the best. A group should review the options generated in step 2 against the criteria established in step 3. Students should consider the pros and cons of each option to make their choice. To examine each option in depth, they might try the “Six Thinking Hats” strategy (de Bono, 1999). In this strategy, every group member approaches a possible option from a different angle: 

~ White Hat: This person contemplates each option from a data-based point of view. The person wearing this hat might ask: “Are there enough people in our group to complete the work?” and “Will this option let us complete our assignment on time?” 

~ Red Hat: This person judges each option by intuition. This person might ask: “Does this option feel right?” “How does this option sit in my gut?” and “How will others react emotionally to this option?” 

~ Black Hat: This is the devil’s advocate of the group, assigned to think of why each option might not work. This person’s job is to point out weaknesses and ask tough questions about each option. 

~ Yellow Hat: This is the positive person in the group, assigned to think of the benefits and positive aspects of each option

. ~ Green Hat: This person evaluates each option from a creative standpoint. This person is assigned to contribute new ideas and explore new possibilities. 

~ Blue Hat: This person manages the whole process. The person with this role is responsible for keeping the group’s discussion on track and moving forward. 

5. Monitor the effects of the option chosen. Once students have made their choice, they should keep track of how it is working for the group. Sometimes there may be unexpected obstacles or roadblocks. Groups should not be afraid to revisit decisions and revise their thinking. 

The four corners strategy (Garmston & Wellman, 1999) helps to develop listening, verbal communication, critical thinking, and decision-making skills. It can be used to reinforce course content, clarify students’ values, and develop an understanding of differences in values and opinions. Follow these steps to conduct a four corners exercise:

1. Create four signs with titles such as Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree that will help students identify where their opinions fall. Place the signs in the corners of the classroom. Move all chairs and tables to the center of the room to clear the corners. 

2. Propose a statement of value that students can take a position on, such as “Knowing how much waste we create is an important scientific problem” or “Icarus should have listened to his father instead of flying near the sun.” 

3. Ask students to take a position on the statement by moving to the corner that best signifies their response to it. 

4. Once students have selected their corners, call on them to give simple, one-sentence statements justifying their positions. Students may change corners at any time as their thinking changes. 

The four-resource model is based on the premise that reading requires four interrelated roles: code breaker, meaning maker, text user, and text analyst (Anstey & Bull, 2006). By placing students in a situation in which they depend on one another to master a particular reading, the four-resource model encourages cooperative learning. It also supports students’ engagement in inquiry because they learn to ask appropriate questions while reading a text. 

To use the four-resource model, students should work in groups of four, with each student assuming one of the following roles: 

• Code Breaker: The code breaker’s main question should be “How do I crack this code?” (Hall, Larson, & Marsh, 2003, p. 357). The code breaker is responsible for making sure that other group members understand the conventions of the text, including its vocabulary, grammar, and structure. The code breaker should also clarify the purpose of nontextual elements such as graphs and illustrations. 

• Meaning Maker: The meaning maker’s main question should be “What does this reading mean?” (Hall et al., 2003, p. 357). After drawing on the code breaker’s work to make sure the group understands the literal meaning of the text, the meaning maker is responsible for moving further, working to understand the text’s purposes. At this point, the meaning maker should ask questions such as “Who wrote the text?” “How does the author’s identity shape her writing?” and “Why did the author choose to write in this style?” Instructional Strategies 25 

• Text User: The text user’s main question should be “What do I do with this text, in the here and now?” (Hall et al., 2003, p. 357). The text user’s job is to make connections with what is being read. Connections might come from already completed readings or from real-life experiences. The text user may need to draw upon the knowledge and experiences of other group members. 

• Text Analyst: The text analyst’s main question should be “What does this reading mean to me?” (Hall et al., 2003, p. 357). The text analyst is responsible for being a critical reader. Other questions the text analyst might ask include “Whose interests does this reading serve?” and “How does this text compare to what the group has read previously?”

 While groups will necessarily begin with the work of the code breaker, they may need each group member’s expertise multiple times in order to fully analyze a reading. For example, the text user may need the code breaker to clarify the meaning of a phrase before a meaningful textual connection can be made. For this reason, the four-resource model can be a powerful illustration of the principle that reading involves many levels of inquiry. 

The IDEAL problem-solving model (Bransford & Stein, 1993) can be used to introduce students to the process of working systematically through a problem with their peers. Working through the five steps of the model gives students practice thinking about complex issues. Because working systematically may not come naturally, students may need an extended amount of time to master the strategy. 

Working in small groups, students follow the five steps of the IDEAL system: 

1. Identify the problem: Students may be given a complex issue to work through, they may be asked to think through an essential question, or they may be given latitude to generate a problem worth investigating independently. Through small-group discussion, students should arrive at a common statement of the problem they plan to solve. This is a foundational step in the problem-solving process. 

2. Define the problem: Defining the problem includes outlining the characteristics of the problem and the major issues or subproblems involved. If there are too many issues, now is a good time for students to narrow the problem. Visual representations, such as flow charts or cause-and-effect diagrams, are especially helpful because they can help group members better understand the problem’s parameters. 

3. Evaluate possible approaches: Having arrived at an exact definition of the problem, now is the time to explore possible approaches to solving it. Strategies such as brainstorming or writing ideas on paper may help the group make progress. Students may need reminding that there are a number of possible approaches to any given problem and that it is important to work together to make an informed choice. 

4. Act on the approaches: Groups work together to solve the problem, using the most appropriate approach. As they work to solve the problem, students should continually monitor the effectiveness of their approach. 

5. Look back, review, and evaluate the effects of the approach: After students have completed their problem-solving activity, they should look back on the process, assess their group’s work, and evaluate the outcome. This critical reflection lays the foundation for successful group work in the future. 

While IDEAL is a group strategy for engaging in inquiry, it also supports the assessment of problem-solving skills. By introducing concrete steps for problem solving, teachers are better able to observe, assess, and ultimately evaluate students’ progress as they work together (Brookhart, 2010). 

Multivoting is a decision-making strategy that is especially useful when groups are faced with many items that need to be ranked. For example, multivoting could be paired with brainstorming, in which students generate many ideas, some of which may be more suitable to the group’s purposes than others. Multivoting can help groups identify and settle upon the best idea available. 

Bens (2005b) outlines the following steps for multivoting: 

1. Group members should review and decide upon the list of items they need to rank. The list may come from any sort of idea-generating process. Members should discuss each item so that everyone has a clear understanding of what is being voted upon. 

2. Groups should establish voting criteria and ensure that all members understand the criteria. For example, are groups voting on the most important idea or the easiest to complete in the time allotted? Clarifying criteria prevents voting at cross purposes. 

3. Following the established criteria, groups should vote on each idea. Voting can be accomplished in any number of ways: by placing sticker dots on index cards, each with a specific idea written on it; by allowing each student 100 voting points to divide between ideas however the student sees fit; or by a simple show of hands. 

4. After voting, groups should add the scores to create lists of top priorities. The ideas with the most votes should receive the highest priority. 

5. If the list is still too long, groups should repeat the process to further narrow the field of options. 

Because it involves voting on a range of ideas, multivoting does not require absolute agreement within a group—every vote counts (Bens, 2005a, p. 67). Since multivoting typically results in group members seeing at least a few favorite ideas at the top of the list, the strategy helps to meet the needs of all involved (Bens, 2005b, p. 159). For these reasons, multivoting is a relatively easy-to-master strategy for learning consensus-building skills. 

A tableau drama is a dramatic re-creation of a scene from literature that uses costumes, props, and expressions in lieu of dialogue and movement. As in the dramatic form of tableau vivant, students conducting a tableau drama create “living statue” poses depicting critical events that have affected a characters’ “inner action—struggles of emotion, conscience, and will” (Pirie, 2002, p. 49). The tableau drama pauses a plot’s action, requiring students to closely examine details such as contradictions in characters’ behavior or emotions. 

Because performing a tableau drama requires preparation, it teaches students important planning and collaborative skills. For example, as a group students must 

• decide what message they want to convey; 

• determine how to capture that message through body position, facial expression, and even costumes or props; 

• try out different positions and expressions by physically moving each living statue’s body; and 

• provide each other with feedback on whether they think they have met their goal. 

Dodge (1997) defines a WebQuest as an inquiry activity in which some or all of the information that students encounter comes from online resources. A short-term WebQuest can take as many as three class periods. Its purpose is to introduce students to a lot of new information and have them try to make sense of it. A long-term WebQuest can take as long as a month to complete. Its aim is to have students deeply analyze a body of knowledge, transform it in some way, and demonstrate an understanding of this knowledge by creating something to which others can respond. 

WebQuests can be individual or group projects. They should be centered on reasonable and interesting tasks. In addition, they should include the following elements: 

• An introduction of the project that sets the stage and provides background information as well as the criteria by which the project will be evaluated. 

• A set of information sources that students will need to complete the assignment independently. Providing such resources can anchor the project, pointing students to pertinent online resources. 

• A description of the process that students must follow to finish the assignment.

 • Guidance on how to organize the information acquired. This guidance can take the form of guiding questions, concept maps, or graphic organizers. 

A WebQuest should be concluded in a way that brings closure to the assignment, reminds students of what they have learned, and encourages students to extend the WebQuest experience into other areas of study.