Chapter 9. Case Study of the Vietnam War

Learning Checklist

Focus 1: Origins of the Vietnam War

□ French Indochina during WWII

□ First Indochina War

Focus 2: A Divided Vietnam

□ North Vietnam in the 1950s

□ South Vietnam in the 1950s

□ The South Vietnam Insurgency, 1954-1960

Focus 3: Escalation of Tensions between North and South Vietnam

□ Local Agents: Viet Cong and South Vietnamese Government

□ External Players: China, the USSR, and the US

□ Outbreak of the Vietnam War

Focus 4: Developments of the Vietnam War, 1964-1976

□ The progress f the war, 1965-1967

□ The Tet Offensive, Jan 1968

□ Fall of Saigon, April 1975

Focus 5: Aftermath of the Vietnam War

□ Damage to American Cold War Foreign Policy

□ Detente

Origins of the Vietnam War

French Indochina

Modern-day Vietnam was part of an area called Indochina, which was colonised progressively by the French between 1862 and 1904. The areas of Tonkin, Annam, and Champa make up modern-day Vietnam. French rule was harsh and characterised by resource exploitation, heavy taxes, and a colonial monopoly on the trade of salt, opium, rice, and alcohol. There were several anti-colonial movements against the French, such as the Franco-Siam War, the Cần Vương movement, and even a Hanoi Posion Plot, but these were all unsuccessful.

Japanese Occupation of French Indochina

After France was defeated by Germany, Japan wanted access to French Indochina for its resources and strategic position. They invaded and occupied the northern region of French Indochina. The rest was governed by the French colonial government in name only - they were often reduced to a puppet of the Japanese.

It was during this time that the Viet Minh was formed to resist both French colonial rule and Japanese occupation. They consisted of both communists and non-communists. During the war, they received help from the US, the anti-communist Guomindang (GMD) government in China, and the USSR.

The First Indochina War

After the war, the French returned wanting to rule Vietnam again, but faced resistance from the Viet Minh. The First Indochina War, fought between both sides, broke out in 1946.

China, which became communist in 1949, supported the Viet Minh which was becoming predominantly communist too. Meanwhile, the US began supporting the French instead.

The French were defeated in 1954, and Vietnam was split into a communist North and non-communist South. Reunification elections were set for 1956.

Viet Minh troops after a victory, 1954.

A Divided Vietnam (1950s)

Both North and South Vietnam had differing ideologies and wanted to unify Vietnam under their rule. In the 1950s, both leaders Ho Chi Minh (North) and Ngo Dinh Diem (South) attempted to consolidate their power through authoritarian means.

North Vietnam

Introduced sweeping land reforms which redistributed land to peasants.
Placed landlords on show trials - public trials without proper legal processes. Outcome is often predetermined.
Execution of many opponents.

South Vietnam

Implemented modernisation programmes.
Attempted to transform countryside communities.
Held rigged referendum to make himself President.
Implemented minimal land reforms (mainly to appease US allies).
Appointed his own families into key roles.

The Ho Chi Minh Trail used by the North Vietnam Army to supply the Viet Cong in the South.

The South Vietnam Insurgency

Opposition to the Diem regime started to wage an insurgency (armed resistance against a government) against him in 1956, after Diem cancelled the promised 1956 reunification elections.

The insurgents included many former members of the Viet Minh who believed in unification. By 1960, they had organised themselves into the Viet Cong. It began to be heavily supported by North Vietnam, with its ranks being swelled by communist North Vietnamese.

By the early 1960s, Diem's regime was in deep trouble.

North Vietnamese transporting supplies along the Ho Chi Minh Trail to support the Viet Cong.

Escalation of Tensions between North and South

The conflict quickly developed into a major Cold War confrontation, with the Vietnam War breaking out in full in 1965. Here's a quick look at the main parties involved.

Local Agents: Viet Cong and South Vietnamese Government

Viet Cong conducted guerilla warfare against the South.
Viet Cong reinforced with around 40,000 North Vietnamese Army troops between 1961-1963.
South Vietnam responded with the Strategic Hamlet policy.

Involvement of China

The above Chinese poster (1965) reads "Celebrate the great victory of the Vietnamese people in their struggle against America!"

China was afraid of a US-backed Vietnam at their doorstep.
The leader, Mao, wanted to show support for another communist state, and felt a bond of loyalty to Ho.
China's involvement could also help unite the Chinese people behind Mao's leadership.
China provided military aid such as guns, ammunition, planes, tanks, and even troops to the North.

Involvement of USSR

The above poster reads: "The Warsaw Pact States are with you, Vietnam!"

USSR cautious of getting involved in the early 1960s.
USSR began to get more involved in mid-1960s, in competition with China to be the leader of the communist world.
USSR provided the North with food, petroleum, transportation equipment, iron and steel, other metals, fertilisers, arms, munitions and other commodities.
By late 1960s, Russian aid outstripped Chinese aid.

Involvement of the US

US was afraid that Vietnam would kick off the Domino Theory, and sought to contain communism.
Initially, the US offered support in the form of military advisors and equipment only.
By mid-1960s, under Lyndon B. Johnson, the US began committing fighting troops into Vietnam.
At its peak, the US had about 500,000 personnel in Vietnam.

Flags of countries involved in the Vietnam War. Can you identify all of them?

Developments of the Vietnam War, 1964-1976

The US could not win the war and eventually pulled out of Vietnam completely in 1973. By 1975, Saigon, the southern capital, fell to the North. How could an undeveloped country fend off the world's strongest military?

Strategy

Viet Cong: Guerilla warfare

Due to an inferior military, the Viet Cong resorted to guerilla warfare and avoided fighting the Americans head-on. They did not wear uniforms and easily melted away into the jungles, villages, and tunnels.

American superior air power

The US tried to exploit their superiority in the air by bombing supply trails, factories, and Viet Cong strongholds. Many civilian casualties were caused.

Support from Civilian Population

Support from Vietnamese Peasants

The Viet Cong cultivated good relations with the peasantry. At the same time, peasants who opposed them or worked with the enemy were also punished severely or killed.

Declining support in America

Despite some initial support for the war, Americans were increasingly against US involvement as the war went on. Due to wide media coverage of the war, the public found out about the American military's use of chemical weapons and the many civilian deaths caused by their bombing.

Morale

Viet Cong determination

Seeing the war as a fight for national liberation, Ho and the Viet Cong were prepared to pay the price. They refused to give in to the Americans.

Declining American morale

Although there was initially high morale, the war dragged on with little success. Young inexperienced troops were conscripted to fight in the war, which was increasingly seen as unjust and unnecessary.