Purpose

The Crucible was written to reveal social and political reality during the McCarthy era. The play can be read as a warning against falling victim to the hysteria of a mob. Its purpose was also to highlight injustice caused by censorship and lack of freedom of speech. Later, Miller remarked: ‘If I hadn’t written The Crucible that period would be unregistered in our literature on any popular level’ (Miller cited in Bigsby, C., 2010, p.93).

Audience

The play appeals to all members of a society as the affairs of others affect individuals. At the time the play was written, the effects of blame and a mob mentality would have appealed to an American audience because of the fear of communism that prevailed.

KEY TERMS

Theocracy: form of government ruled by God through religious officials

Puritanism: a harsh, strictly moral form of Protestantism

Communism: a social, political and economic system where each member of society works for communal benefit so that, in theory, all property is held in common with each person contributing and receiving according to their ability and needs; various versions exist, such as Marxism and Stalinism

McCarthyism: anti-communist hysteria caused by naming and blacklisting individuals who were suspected of holding left-wing or communist beliefs; inflamed and perpetuated by Senator Joseph McCarthy in the USA in the early 1950s

Cold war: the Cold War was a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States and allies) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies)

Domino theory: prominent from the 1950s, this speculated that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect

Witchcraft: use of sorcery or magic

Incriminate: charge with a crime, involve self in accusation

Deposition: giving of sworn evidence, an accusation

Testify: bear witness to fact or assertion against a person

Poppet: a small doll, can be a voodoo (bewitched) doll, designed to cause harm to someone

Reputation: what is generally said or believed about a person’s character

Crucible: a situation of severe trial

Occult: involving the supernatural, mystical, magical

The Setting

The Crucible is set in the seventeenth century during the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692. Miller bases his play on facts from the trial, although he states in the notes at the beginning of the play that ‘Dramatic purposes have sometimes required many characters to be fused into one’. The seventeenth-century community is Puritan, highly superstitious and gullible, with a strong fear of witchcraft.

Despite its historical references, The Crucible is a modern play and hence the setting is a true reflection of the time. There are references to other settings, such as the woods where the girls danced, but no action takes place there, for example.

The various settings include:

Act One: Betty’s bedroom in the home of Reverend Samuel Parris. The morning sunlight streams through a narrow window. To the right side of the bed is a candle burning from the night before. The room is clean and spare. The wooden rafters are visible and raw.

Act Two: the common room of Proctor’s house, a long and low-ceilinged living area. To the right, a door opens to fields and to the left is a fireplace. A stairway leads upstairs.

Act Three: the Salem General Court. The vestry room of the Salem meeting house becomes the General Court. The room is empty and sunlight pours in through two high windows. It is not a welcoming room.

Act Four: the town jail. There are high barred windows at the back of a Salem jail cell. There is a heavy door and two benches along the walls. The darkness is broken by the moonlight coming through the bars. The mood is created through the cell, which appears empty, and the sound of footsteps and keys rattling.

Irony

Verbal irony occurs when the audience recognises that what a character says is the truth or a lie, even though other characters on stage do not. By using verbal irony, Miller is satirising the witch trials in order to highlight unjust government policy during the McCarthy era. Determining the truth about accusations is difficult considering what is spoken can be ambiguous as people’s motivations can not be easily ascertained. For example, when Elizabeth tells the court that Proctor did not have an affair with Abigail when she knows he did, the audience recognises that she is loyal to her husband and holds the sanctity of marriage above all else. She also illustrates the value of keeping private what occurs in the private space of the home.

Another example of verbal irony is when Abigail and the girls lie about witches and ghosts in court. The audience recognises their deceit, but many characters on stage refuse to acknowledge their part in the hysteria. Miller uses dramatic irony when the girls feign being attacked by spirits and those in court believe their behaviour because they fear that they too are in danger. In addition, the presiding judges of the witch trials value the reputation of the court over truth and justice. It is tragically ironic that those administering the judicial system would compromise the ideals on which the system is based by unjustly leading innocent people to their death.

Danforth thinks he is acting honourably when he says, ‘a person is either with this court or he must be counted against it’ (p. 85). Unfortunately his ideals are corrupt as he condemns innocent people to death. Danforth refuses to acquit seven women on trial for witchcraft. Reverend Hale’s failed attempts to illicit a confession from the charged women, despite his certainty that they are innocent, prompts him to appeal to Danforth to pardon them.

There is great irony in Danforth’s use of the word ‘just’ in his statement to Reverend Hale: ‘You misunderstand, sir; I cannot pardon these when twelve are already hanged for the same crime. It is not just.’ (p. 113). Miller positions the audience to be critical of Danforth’s decision to not pardon these women because so many other women have been condemned before them. Danforth argues that to free these seven women on trail would ‘cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died till now’ (p. 113), but more importantly a pardon would compromise his reputation in the community. The audience notices the irony in Danforth’s statement and knows that his position in Salem and the court are more valuable to him than innocent lives.

Stage directions

Stage directions specifically direct the actions and intonation of characters. For example, the sense of separation between Elizabeth and Proctor is shown through their interactions with each other in Act Two. Elizabeth pauses and turns her back on her husband, knowing that there is friction between them. She does not want to confront her husband about his affair, but she knows she must. She fears angering him, his reaction is one of solemn warning and anger. When Mary Warren testifies in court, her voice is almost inaudible and at times she cannot speak. In contrast, Danforth’s tone is threatening as he pressures her to confess to witchcraft through his didactic questioning. She eventually breaks into sobs from his pressure when she declares she is with God, knowing that Danforth does not believe her.

Another example occurs in the courtroom when a frightened Abigail looks up at the ceiling, shivers, pretends to see spirits and, along with the other girls, mimics Mary Warren’s speech and actions. The hysteria caused by the accusations can be seen in the behaviour of the girls in the courtroom. Abigail looks into the air above, clasping her arms as though cold and saying that a wind has come. Her pretence gives credence to her accusations of witchcraft and finally weakens Mary’s testimony, denouncing any involvement in witchcraft. The girls’ mimicking of Mary Warren’s speech and actions turns Mary hysterical and provides a visual image to the witnesses that witchcraft is responsible for their behaviour and therefore must be stopped. The girls’ actions are too powerful for Mary to resist; she will either join their group or be demonised by them, so she chooses to corroborate their fictional story.

Figurative language

Miller refers to symbols that reflect the values of this seventeenth-century community. In the play, various symbols are used to incriminate innocent people and isolate them from the rest of the townspeople. The witch trials themselves can be seen as a symbol of the public paranoia during the 1950s about communism taking over America. The Crucible symbolises the narrow-mindedness and unscrupulous methods used by the government of the time to eradicate a perceived social ill, disregarding the individual’s right to self-expression and free will. In addition, many of the symbols of witchcraft are used against the townspeople as evidence of existing grudges. For example, the small doll, or poppet, was commonly presumed to represent witchcraft. Here Miller uses the poppet to incriminate Elizabeth Proctor. The poppet is given to her as a ‘gift’ by her servant Mary Warren, who made the doll in court. Abigail claims to have been stabbed by the needle found in the doll. The doll represents the ease with which an enemy can be accused, creating rifts in a community.

Miller uses metaphors, similes and visual images sparingly to represent the hysteria of the witch hunt and the ease with which innocent people are accused. For example, when Abigail attempts to seduce Proctor by referring to the passion of their affair, she uses the visual image of the sweating stallion to describe Proctor’s desire for her. She alludes to the ‘look’ on his face when she was put out of the house. His passion for her is shown through him looking up at the window of her house, longing for her. It is obvious that Proctor was a willing participant in the affair. In contrast, Elizabeth is described by Abigail as a ‘cold, snivelling woman’ (p. 20). Elizabeth admits to this at the end of the play when she takes responsibility for her part in her husband’s affair and confesses that ‘it were a cold house I kept’ and that ‘It needs a cold wife to prompt lechery’ (p. 119). By acknowledging her role, Elizabeth clearly stands with her husband, and against the corruption of the political order.

Miller uses imagery to contrast values held by characters. For example, before Proctor is taken to jail, and after Mary Warren accuses him of witchcraft in court, he accuses Danforth of communing with the devil. He refers to the metaphorical fire of hell burning and the sound of the boots of Lucifer. He says the face of Lucifer is his own, and Danforth’s, and that they will both burn in hell, but for different reasons – Danforth because he knows the accusations of witchcraft are fraudulent, and Proctor because he tried to expose the ignorance of those in power, sending innocent people to their grave. In Act Four, Reverend Hale reports that the town is in great confusion because of the witch hunts, using highly visual images of homeless orphans wandering the street, abandoned cattle and rotting crops. The images vividly depict the way the community has been torn apart.

Miller represents the way chaos can be perpetuated in society when the expression of dishonesty and treachery are left unchecked through the metaphor of ‘wheels within wheels’ and ‘fires within fires!’ in the village (p. 33). Ann Putnam’s exclamation of continual deceit and the presence of hell feeds into the hysteria of Salem, fracturing any sense of personal connection, compassion and security in society. The confusion caused by the accusations has created fear and nobody knows who they can trust. Thomas Putnam has a land dispute with Francis Nurse and seeks to increase his wealth by destroying Francis’s reputation so he can take over his land. People are perceived to be guilty of witchcraft through association rather than actual guilt. Miller is making a very strong point that guilt by association is dangerous. He was accused of communism himself during the McCarthy era, which affected his reputation, although there was little proof of him having pro-communist beliefs. At any time innocent people could be accused of doing something they didn’t do and this is no way to live peacefully in any society.

Sample HSC exam-style questions for paper 1, section iii

Before you begin to analyse the kind of texts you will find in the HSC exam, it is important to understand the types of questions you may be required to answer for Paper 1, Section II. The information below will help you.

Examples of the types of question you may be asked are as follows.

Example A (20 marks)

Through the telling and receiving of stories, we become more aware of ourselves and our shared human experiences.

To what extent is this true for your prescribed text?

In your response, refer to your prescribed text in detail.

Example A uses a statement as a stimulus. It is generic for all prescribed texts. You need to show the extent to which this is true or not for your prescribed text.

Example B (20 marks)

How has your understanding of the challenges of human experiences been shaped by the composer’s use of figurative language in your prescribed text?

In your response, refer to your prescribed text in detail. The question is specifically related to language features.

Example B is specific to the form of the prescribed texts, in this case poetry.

Example C (20 marks)

Analyse how the representation of the natural environment shapes your understanding of memory, loss and grief in [prescribed text].

Example C is specific to the prescribed text and it’s key ideas.

Example D (20 marks)

Analyse how the representation of the [specific aspect] shapes your understanding of [specific aspect] in your prescribed text.

Example D is specific to the prescribed text. The specific aspect could be anything relevant to the prescribed text, such as narrative elements, including characterisations, themes, etc., and key concepts, such as the natural environment, conflict, etc.

Example E (20 marks)

How has your understanding of the challenges of the human experience been shaped by the [director’s, writer’s, playwright’s, etc.] use of [mise-en-scène, characterisation, themes, etc.] in your prescribed text?

Example E is specific to the FORM of the prescribed text. You will be asked to address language forms and features pertaining to that type of text.

The terms below are more commonly used for questions in this section.

Analyse: examine closely how the textual features of a text create meaning

Explain: make known in detail how the textual features create meaning

Compare: identify and explain similarities represented in textual features in two or more texts

Contrast: identify and explain differences represented in textual features in two or more texts

Evaluate: estimate value of, or express how significant, the textual features of a text are in creating meaning

Discuss: examine different perspectives about an idea, concept or issue in the textual features of a text

Assess: estimate value of the textual features of a text in creating meaning

To what extent: analyse textual features of a text in order to determine the limits or scope of your argument

Breaking down the question

One of the keys to success in the exam is your ability to meaningfully answer the question. This will determine your thesis, the references to the text you choose and key ideas and concepts you discuss.

When you break down the question, consider the following:

• key words or ideas

• key terms that give your answer focus

• possible thesis or direction of your argument

• textual details (such as characters, structure, form, language, plot) to focus on in relation to individual and collective human experiences.

Key scene analysis

To gain a better understanding of how language and visual techniques work together to represent the concept of texts and human experiences, it is a good idea to analyse a few key scenes from your prescribed text.

You use the analysis of the scene as a guide for writing your own key scene analysis paragraphs about your prescribed text.

Text: The Crucible by Arthur Miller

Modelled response

Key scene: Last scene

Main human experiences concept explored in this scene: In an act of redemption and rebellion, John Proctor overcomes the oppression of a corrupted society by adhering to the principles of honour and dignity.

Language forms and features and examples:

• Elizabeth’s visual image of Giles Corey being crushed to death by having stones placed on his chest

• ‘mount the gibbet like a saint’ simile is used to compare the honour of characters like Corey with Proctor’s own blemished past

• Act of ‘judging’ is used to symbolically represent the irony of the legal proceedings during the witch trial

Key quotes:

• ‘mount the gibbet like a saint’

• ‘dust on the feet of them that hanged’

• ‘I speak my own sins; I cannot judge another’

• ‘He have his goodness now’

Analysis:

• Elizabeth tells Proctor that Corey Giles refused to confess to witchcraft and was crushed to death by stones.

• Proctor laments that he is not a good man and can’t go to the gallows a martyr.

• Proctor asks for Elizabeth’s forgiveness.

• Proctor confesses to witchcraft, but refuses to sign the confession as it will condemn innocent people.

• Proctor refuses to sign the confession as he will compromise his reputation.

• Act of ‘judging’ is used to symbolise the corruption of the law

• He goes to the gallows redeemed.

Full analysis of how language and examples represent texts and human experiences:

In an act of redemption and rebellion, John Proctor overcomes the oppression of a corrupted society by adhering to the principles of honour and dignity. In the last scene of the play, Elizabeth is urged by Reverend Hale to speak with Proctor in the hope that she can get her husband to confess to witchcraft. Instead, Elizabeth’s visual image of Giles Corey being crushed to death by having stones placed on his chest forces Proctor to consider his own personal truth. Even on the brink of death, Giles Corey refused to tarnish his reputation and stood mute so that he could die a Christian under the law. Proctor laments that he is not a good man and cannot ‘mount the gibbet like a saint’, the simile being used to compare the honour of characters like Corey with Proctor’s own blemished past. Proctor thinks that if he goes to the gallows as a martyr it would be a falsehood as he is not worth the ‘dust on the feet of them that hanged’—others who have not sinned as he has. In the end, he refuses to sign the confession as it will condemn innocent people: ‘I speak my own sins; I cannot judge another’. The act of ‘judging’ is used to symbolically represent the irony of the legal proceedings during the witch trial, which led to innocent deaths. Proctor, an ordinary man, acts honourably by refusing to ‘judge’ others, while the law does not. Proctor was at first willing to give his soul through his confession, but refuses to compromise his reputation for the sake of approval from a corrupt society, maintaining his dignity in the face of death. As he goes to the gallows, Elizabeth observes that ‘he have his goodness now’.