Vaudeville and drag have been quintessential in the creation and celebration of difference in American culture. Vaudeville was a form of stage entertainment, most prominent in big cities from the 1880s-1920s. Most variety shows were often only intended for white, male audiences, but with the growing population and rise in immigration rates, Vaudeville was created to provide family-friendly, American entertainment that anyone could enjoy. Vaudeville created an entertainment space that allowed diverse groups, like different races and classes, to cross paths. Female impersonation was one of the most popular Vaudeville acts. 

Historians often argue the difference between “drag” and “female impersonation,” though the entertainment purposes were the same for both, and years of female impersonation eventually led to modern drag culture. Out of all vaudeville acts, female impersonators were often the stars of the show, as they attracted large audiences and higher salaries. While cross-dressing in the streets was punished, vaudeville and female impersonators used it as a way of almost confirming the gender binary by making it clear that impersonation was different than identity, as sex was always disclosed at the end of the performance.

Julian Eltinge was a vaudeville drag performer born in 1881. He was considered one of the most talented and popular female impersonators of the time, due to his feminine mannerisms and dress. Eltinge’s start with vaudeville allowed him to move on to Broadway shows in the early 1900s. He continued performing in vaudeville shows until they died down, and eventually started performing in nightclubs and silent films. After success on Broadway and modern nighttime entertainment. However, homosexuality became a circulated, derogatory term in the 1930s, making the mid-1900s a “dark period” for queer, trans, and drag communities. Due to this, and legal crackdowns regarding cross-dressing, Eltinge faced limitations as a drag performer towards the end of his life, leading up until his death.

Though there was much speculation about his personal life and sexuality, Eltinge emphasized masculine behaviors off-stage, separating his art from his personal life. It was widely rumored that he had several affairs with men throughout his life, though Eltinge seemed to fight these claims with violence, language, and any other masculine traits that could reinforce his masculine identity. This reinforces the strict creation of gender differences from that time. 

Despite differences in performance, both female impersonation and drag are similar in the creation and celebration of difference because of the combination of entertainment, sexuality, and bending societal gender norms. Today, drag is publicly performed and celebrated with popular media such as RuPaul’s Drag Race, events like pride parades, DragCon, and Wigstock, and nightclub and daytime drag performances. Even though it’s now mainstream, drag faces much scrutiny in several parts of the nation. One of the main differences between vaudeville performances and today’s drag performances are the views surrounding sexuality. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was something known as “homosexual panic,” which had performers like Eltinge making a big show of their masculinity off stage and making their assigned gender well known by the end of the performance. Today, drag is very closely linked to the queer community, regardless of a performer’s sexual orientation.

Difference has been created in many different ways throughout history, with female impersonation and drag being one of them. Cross-dressing has been a way for people to express their gender in any way they choose, often in a way that inspires confidence and sexuality. While not always openly received, drag is a vital piece of entertainment and queer history. Vaudeville paved the way for many modern forms of entertainment, and Julian Eltinge influenced the world of drag that has evolved since then.

Vaudeville, which was a popular form of entertainment in the 19th century, featured a variety of acts that included comedy, dancing, dance, etc. It is remembered also for its use of blackface and black caricatures. Vaudeville had a lot to do with shaping the entertainment industry we see today, and its format is still evident in variety act shows such as SNL. It’s important to understand the way Vaudeville relied on both breaking social norms and ideals and reinforcing them to become successful. 

In terms of gender roles, they were very defined in this period so any deviation from them was seen as being transgressive. With acts that featured men dressing as women or vice versa, the audience was provided with performances that defied social norms.

Racial stereotypes led to black people being left with very specific and limited roles in vaudeville. This could be physical things like oversized lips or dirty clothes or personality traits like hyper-sexual, simple-minded or the “Mammy” character. Many times, black individuals were forced into roles that reinforced stereotypes against them. It is an interesting dichotomy that was experienced by BIPOC who performed in vaudeville. Ethel Waters, a black woman who was discovered by two vaudeville agents at age fourteen is a great example of this. While she rose to popularity through vaudeville and kick-started a successful career as a singer and actress, she also describes some of the discrimination and mistreatment she had to face while doing vaudeville. In her autobiography His Eye Is on The Sparrow (1951), she details the challenges she faced while navigating the predominantly white world of vaudeville. She recounts details of being denied opportunities or being limited in roles on the basis of her race. She goes on to describe unequal pay, facing public scrutiny, poor working conditions (especially in comparison to her white counterparts), difficulty finding accommodations and restaurants while on tour, and the constant pressure to prove herself and her talent. 

For white performers, performing “gender-bending” acts was far easier, accessible, and enjoyable due to the fact that they weren’t burdened with racial stereotypes. 

Black performers, due to the limited roles they were given based on these racial stereotypes weren’t given the same freedom to defy gender norms. And when they were, it was often done in a way that reinforced negative stereotypes about them for the benefit of a white audience.

 Vaudeville was a reflection of cultural and social norms, which was based on a system that placed white, male, heterosexual, able-bodied, and middle-class individuals at the top of the social order (Springhill, 2008). Those outside of these groups were portrayed as being inferior and treated as forms of entertainment rather than people. Vaudeville shows us the consequences of these constructed differences by revealing the ways in which some groups were denied equal access and opportunities to participate in society. 

Jürgen Habermas is a German sociologist and philosopher who developed the theory of the public sphere. In his 1962 work, “The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,” Habermas discusses the development of a public sphere, a place where everyone can gather and discuss social and political issues with equal access, without hierarchy. While this theory is wonderful on paper, it ended up excluding marginalized groups and perpetuating inequality. In the German coffeehouses where Habermas developed this theory, it was common for women and poor people to be denied access to this public space and were not able to have the same conversations the rich men were having. 

Clare Sears’ Arresting Dress chronicles life in 19th century San Francisco during the time of cross-dressing laws. Sears notes the importance of Habermas’ theory of the public sphere by explaining, “By restricting access to these public venues, cross-dressing law effectively excluded gender-variant people from civic participation and the democratic life of the city (Sears 76).” Cross-dressing laws targeted individuals not conforming to traditional gender norms, contributing to their marginalization in the public sphere and reinforcing gender binary expectations. 

Enforcement of these laws created a hostile environment for gender diverse individuals from both individuals in their communities and government officers. This hostility denied a space for gender diverse individuals in public conversation and spaces. Not only are these people denied access to conversational spaces to discuss the events occurring in their local institutions, but they become unwelcome in public spaces all together. Removing diversity from these public spaces can erase the narrative and values of the people excluded, leading to a public and governmental hatred. 

Feminist and philosopher Nancy Fraser notes that, “members of subordinated groups [...] have repeatedly found it advantageous to constitute alternate publics (Charles 5),” which she refers to as “subaltern counterpublics.” Important examples of these alternate public spheres include the feminist counterpublic, especially prominent in the 1970s, where women opened up various new public spaces to discuss political matters, including bookstores and academic courses, and the Black public sphere, which developed in the 1860s and has changed many times since then. Black public spheres have been important for facilitating social change since their development in places like academic institutions, churches, civil rights organizations, and literary circles (Johnson 43). 

Social movements throughout history have shown the importance of a space for open discussion. Adaptations marginalized people have made in the face of exclusion prove the value of a dedicated space for personalized communication, but a common public sphere designated to be safe and encouraging for all people will create a more understanding society.

As vaudeville and freakshows had been gaining popularity, it had been becoming more visible to the attention of everyday society. While these “female impersonators” were gaining popularity, it had been making them more of a target towards laws and restrictions. This form of entertainment that had once been seen as “family friendly” entertainment was now seen as a threat. Vaudeville and freakshows, having commonly been used as spaces for queer individuals, had now associated them with homosexuality, which was a threat to “traditional” lifestyles. It had been something about “publicness and self-consciousness of their deviation” (Eskridge) which had suddenly made society feel strangely towards those who were performing. This is when cross dressing had begun to creep away from the public eye.

One of the first states to have actually set a ban in place was New York. The rule had stated that it was a crime to have  your “face painted, discolored, covered or concealed” (Ryan). Something that was interesting was that this law was not originally in place because of impersonators and cross dressing, it was one for rural farmers. Apparently during the 1840s there had been a rising issue of farmers “dressing like Native Americans to fight off tax collectors” (Ryan), enough to have had an issue which called for a law. Between somewhere in the 1840s to around the 1900s, 34 cities out of 21 states had enacted prohibitions against cross dressing. Some states would state that people cannot be caught while wearing a “disguise”. But what do we consider a disguise? A costume? But in this scenario, it is a moment where we are creating differences when it comes to gendered binaries.

We see this later affecting those during the Stonewall riots. Police had begun a rule of the “Three Article Rule”. This was a rule that an individual had to have been wearing at least three articles of clothing that had belonged to their gender assigned at birth. But this had instilled an immediate resilence into the queer community that we still have today.

Nowadays, drag queens and kings, despite their name signaling royalty, are not treated as such. This once family oriented form of entertainment is now being attacked in states such as Tennesse. It is being referred to as being entertainment with “prurient interest” (Sears, et al). This  refers to a form of entertainment that is adult only orientated, and not meant to be seen by children. Something that this project had taught me was the power that resilience and deviance has within the queer community. Despite society having developed beyond the need for gender binaries, we still revert back to them constantly, falling back into these boxes of difference within our everyday lives.

Vaudeville, freak shows, and the evolution of drag in combination with public exclusion and current laws, illustrates how gender norms have shaped American history and gender norms. With diverse Vaudeville acts, including the popular act of female impersonation, social standards of gender were challenged. Julian Eltinge’s success in Vaudeville and later in Broadway and film exemplifies the impact of gender transgression in American media. Racial stereotypes in vaudeville, however, limited the roles and freedom of Black performers, reinforcing societal norms. Marginalization on the basis of gender and race and exclusion from public spheres has led to differences being created and furthered by American individuals and governments. The tools of power utilized by the government have included laws and policies, limiting access to public spaces, and social ethics denying freedom of gender expression, have shaped a divided society around gender. The transgression of gender norms, expectations, and expressions, whether in entertainment or public discourse, has been instrumental in creating and celebrating differences.

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