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This page discusses a literature review's key findings on past research regarding UGC on social media. The following summary highlights the relationship between brands and consumers online, as well as their perceptions of UGC.
To read the full literature review, click here.
The emergence of user-generated content in an era of social media marketing.
The emergence of user-generated content in an era of social media marketing.
User-generated content (UGC) is produced by online users who deliberately provide social media platforms with data, media, or information in a valuable and/or enjoyable manner (Wang & Li, 2017). Ten years ago, text and photos were the most popular UGC creations and the least favorable types were drawing, video, and audio creations (Daugherty, Eastin, & Bright, 2008). While photo-based UGC is still popular amongst internet users today, video and audio production have become more favorable UGC creation types due to the video-sharing social media platform TikTok. Nevertheless, Instagram is still a prominent social media for young adults today with over 1 billion users that are active monthly (Aslam, 2021).
The rise of visually-based social networking sites (SNSs) brings forth a new era of advertising with the emergence of visual UGC that are brand-related (Br–UGC), which are UGC that features a brand’s products, services, and/or image (logo, slogan, etc.). This style of content may feature consumers’s reflections of their brand experiences, opinions, or praise to their social networks (Yu & Ko, 2021). Coca-Cola’s “Share a Coke” campaign, launched in 2014, was driven by Br–UGC, as consumers were encouraged to post content on social media that featured the newly custom-named bottles while using the #shareacoke hashtag (Pitts, 2015). Over 500,000 photos circulated SNSs, and the brand increased their sales by 2 percent (Pitts, 2015). Users continue to keep this campaign thriving today.
Motivational factors related to UGC production and consumption drives the popularity of UGC.
Motivational factors related to UGC production and consumption drives the popularity of UGC.
Researchers in the marketing communication and advertising field have examined and identified consumers’ psychological and emotional attributes that influence the production of UGC: the aspiration to obtain and share information, desire for satisfaction and trust, social interaction, self-expression, and entertainment. Moreover, media scholars have analyzed the motivations of brands’ interactions with UGC, their interactivity with consumers, and third-party consumers’ perspectives on the communication between brands and their customers on social media.
Knoll and Proksch’s (2017) study demonstrated that online users seek out UGC for information purposes as well as the notion that when they want to be social online, they are more likely to share content, including advertisement-based UGC. Javed, Malik, Awan and Khan's (2021) study provided further elaboration on this topic through their research on understanding why online users post photos of food on social media. Their survey findings indicated that users post food-related content because they feel a desire to share information within their networks to let them know about their dining experiences and food evaluations.
Social media users expose themselves to UGC to be entertained and educated (Knoll & Proksch, 2017). They do so to develop their own identities and connect with more individuals. Users post photos of food as a way of self-expression to represent their habits and style (Javed et al., 2021). Users also feel compelled to post UGC of food on social media to adhere to social norms and follow trends.
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UGC in the form of business and user communication provides an understanding of the relationships between brands and their consumers online.
UGC in the form of business and user communication provides an understanding of the relationships between brands and their consumers online.
Text-Based UGC
Text-Based UGC
Within the last four years, media researchers have examined brands’ interactions with the uses of UGC on social media, as well as their communication strategies with their consumers. UGC photographic styles, visual engagement, and interactivity over branded content are substantial factors in facilitating effective UGC in the form of brand and consumer communication.
Lee and Seltzer's (2018) communication experiment suggested that strategic use of online communication successfully embellishes relationships between organizations and the public. For example, Starbucks executes very successful marketing communication strategies on Twitter. Taecharungroj's (2017) content analysis demonstrated how Starbucks used original and retweeted content, text-based UGC, to leverage their social media presence and boost engagement. Information was their most prevalent reply type, followed by apology and positive commentary.
Source: Digital Living
Source: Wishpond
Visual-Based UGC
Visual-Based UGC
Few studies have examined how brands build better connections with their consumers by using UGC in their social media marketing strategies. Geurin and Burch's (2017) content analysis on sports brands' Instagrams indicated that overt brand-focused photos generated the most engagement. This form of UGC distinctly features the brands’ products or logo. In contrast, photos that did not clearly focus on the product or brand did not elicit as much consumer engagement.
Nanne, Antheunis and Noort’s (2021) research also contributed to the emphasis on the importance of visual representation depicted in UGC. Their research suggested that facial expressions in Instagram Br–UGC and the strength of ties (i.e. relationships between individuals) between online users can have a significant impact on consumers. Their findings demonstrated that brand attitude was positively impacted by happy facial expressions.
The persuasion knowledge model theory is a framework used to learn about the psychological activation of consumers’ behavior when exposed to UGC.
The persuasion knowledge model theory is a framework used to learn about the psychological activation of consumers’ behavior when exposed to UGC.
The Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) is a framework that evaluates the various elements that impact consumers’ conceptualization of persuasion strategies and their awareness of how they handle persuasive pursuits. Scholars’ research indicates that it is influenced by information regarding the topic, comprehension of the influential process, and being conscious of the communicators (Mayrhofer, Matthes, Einwiller, & Naderer, 2020).
Media professionals have analyzed the role in which PKM plays in consumers’ behavior towards marketing. PKM presupposes that customers have comprehension and feelings about marketers’ reasons and techniques; they utilize this comprehension to understand, critique, and react to persuasion attempts (Kim & Song, 2018).
Kim and Song’s (2018) research suggested that Br–UGC sponsorship propels the awakening of persuasion knowledge, the extent of which relies on the prominence of manipulative intent. Viewers’ persuasion knowledge elevates if the messages are coming from brands, and lessens if users are conveying the message (Mayrhofer et al., 2020).
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The effectiveness of Br-UGC strategies can be measured through the studying of consumers' perceived trustworthiness and feelings of longing for the advertised product.
The effectiveness of Br-UGC strategies can be measured through the studying of consumers' perceived trustworthiness and feelings of longing for the advertised product.
Professionals in the marketing communication and advertising field have analyzed the effectiveness of UGC on consumer response. Media scholars have investigated consumers’ perceptions of UGC and identified factors that contribute to their trustworthiness of UGC. Lawrence, Fournier and Brunel's (2013) analysis of consumer-generated advertising’s (CGA) effectiveness and leverage over company-generated advertising demonstrated that company creators and their ads are less trustworthy than CGA creators and their content. CGA ads are perceived to be more genuine and credible compared to company ads (Lawrence et al., 2013) .
Additionally, consumers react differently to UGC depending on whether it is organic, unpaid content or sponsored, paid content. Kim and Song’s (2018) research suggested that organic Br–UGC generated more positive reactions compared to sponsored Br–UGC, as there were less presumptions of manipulative intent.
CGAs are a form of UGC as they are advertisements produced by consumers “with the look, feel, form, and intent of traditional advertising” (Lawrence et al., 2013, p. 292).
CGAs are a form of UGC as they are advertisements produced by consumers “with the look, feel, form, and intent of traditional advertising” (Lawrence et al., 2013, p. 292).
The Envy Effect
The Envy Effect
Other researchers have studied the emotional impact UGC can elicit in consumers and the effectiveness UGC has on purchase intention. To investigate how UGC on Instagram involving luxury brand experiences impacts consumers’ feelings of envy, Yu and Ko (2021) facilitated a content analysis. Their findings contributed to the theory of the Envy Effect:
The conceptualization of the behavior of consumers who so strongly desire a product or service that they agree to pay a higher financial amount for it (Yu & Ko, 2021).
The conceptualization of the behavior of consumers who so strongly desire a product or service that they agree to pay a higher financial amount for it (Yu & Ko, 2021).
Consumer envy is when consumers feel the need to obtain a product driven by their feelings of longing. It is activated when they notice and compare others’ experiences and possessions with their own, which heavily influences their purchase decisions (Yu & Ko, 2021). If a consumer sees UGC featuring a product or service that they wish to obtain, they may be more likely to purchase it to satisfy their envious feelings towards the individuals engaging with the product or service in the content.
How do food brands utilize UGC on their Instagram accounts?
How do food brands utilize UGC on their Instagram accounts?
Though numerous scholars in the marketing communication and advertising field have broadly analyzed UGC attributes and its advertising strengths, few have investigated how brands strategically utilize UGC on their social media. Past studies have analyzed various brands and industries, with a few food brands included, in their research on UGC (Geurin & Burch, 2017; Javed et al., 2021; Yu & Ko, 2021), but there is a gap in the literature as to how food brands exclusively utilize UGC on their Instagram profiles.
More quantitative examination on UGC use by food brands’ Instagram accounts and its consumer engagement may provide deeper understanding of brands’ strategies and consumers’ opinions on which forms of UGC are most influential (Geurin & Burch, 2017).
Since there is an absence of quantitative research on the use of UGC on food brands’ Instagram profiles, the research questions and hypotheses below were developed:
Since there is an absence of quantitative research on the use of UGC on food brands’ Instagram profiles, the research questions and hypotheses below were developed:
RQ1: How often do consumer envy-specific comments appear below the UGC posted by food brands?
H1: Food brands that utilize UGC on their Instagram accounts moderately generate consumer envy-specific comments.
RQ2: Do food brands utilize entertainment-focused UGC more often on their Instagram accounts than information-focused UGC?
H2: Food brands utilize UGC that are entertainment-focused more often on their Instagram accounts compared to information-focused UGC.
RQ3: Do food brands primarily utilize UGC that are overtly brand-focused featuring individuals with happy facial expressions?
H3: Food brands primarily utilize UGC that are overtly brand-focused featuring individuals with happy facial expressions to positively influence consumers.
RQ4: Does audience engagement differ depending on whether the food brand's UGC on Instagram is organic or sponsored?
H4: There are considerable differences in audience engagement with UGC utilized on food brands’ Instagram profiles depending on whether the posts are organic or sponsored.
Click below to read about this study's methodology approach:
This study was administered in 2021-22 as a component of Endicott College's Senior Thesis requirement for undergraduate students. This research pertains to education, theories, concepts, and practices within the communication field. Please provide any feedback, queries, or recommendations to mhale245@mail.endicott.edu.
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