It was a brew to rival any in “Macbeth.” The main ingredients were rat brain and a fearsome, carefully cultivated virus.

In his laboratory in Pearl River, N.Y., 20 miles north of Manhattan, Dr. Hilary Koprowski macerated the ingredients in an ordinary kitchen blender one January day in 1948. He poured the result — thick, cold, gray and greasy — into a beaker, lifted it to his lips and drank. It tasted, he later said, like cod liver oil.

With that sip, Dr. Koprowski, a virologist who died on April 11 at 96, inoculated himself against polio, years before the vaccines of Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin.

Dr. Koprowski was one of the world’s foremost biomedical researchers, helping usher in a spate of innovations, including a safer, less painful and more effective rabies vaccine that remains widely used.

But his most noteworthy innovation — developing the first viable vaccine against polio and testing it successfully on humans — is far less well known. It has long been eclipsed in public memory by the triumphs of Salk, whose injectable vaccine was introduced in 1955, and Sabin, whose oral vaccine was introduced in stages in the early 1960s.

“Koprowski’s was the first serious scientific attempt at a live-virus polio vaccine,” said the historian David M. Oshinsky, whose 2005 book, “Polio: An American Story,” chronicles the race to pre-empt the disease. “Jonas Salk is a god in America, Albert Sabin’s got a ton of publicity, and Hilary Koprowski, who really should be part of that trinity, is the forgotten man.” 

From the beginning, a live-virus vaccine like Dr. Koprowski’s was the most coveted weapon in the war on polio. Such vaccines can be administered orally and are far cheaper than injections. And because they involve live viruses, which can spread within a community, they can also confer immunity on others. (The Salk vaccine, made from killed viruses, cannot.)

But there was a grave catch: for a live polio vaccine to be safe, the viruses would have to be sufficiently weakened — attenuated, in medical parlance — so they would produce antibodies without inducing polio’s neurological effects.

On the evidence, the Koprowski vaccine did precisely this. But though it was given to patients overseas with good results, it was never approved for use in the United States.

Dr. Koprowski was the last of the three great virologists who stalked polio at midcentury; Sabin died in 1993, Salk in 1995. His death raises a large retrospective question: Why, in an era when a polio vaccine was the most urgently sought grail in American public health, did his go unused? 

The answer, gleaned from period news accounts, histories of the war on polio and interviews with Dr. Koprowski’s associates, illuminates the delicate balance of risk and reward — and the uneasy confluence of science, politics and personality — that can inform the development of a drug.

Dr. Koprowski, who spent more than 30 years as the director of the Wistar Institute, a biomedical research center in Philadelphia, was widely described as a titanic, sometimes polarizing figure: a refugee from Nazi-occupied Poland, he was a trained concert pianist, a fluent speaker of seven languages, a connoisseur of food and wine, and a collector of old master paintings. 

“He was the single most forceful, dominant, charismatic person I have ever met in my life,” said [Dr. Paul Allan Offit (born 1951)], the chief of infectious diseases at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, who worked under Dr. Koprowski at Wistar in the 1980s.

That outsize personality, combined with Dr. Koprowski’s outsider status — he spent part of his career in industry at a time when academia had far more prestige — may have played a role in the fate of his vaccine, his biographer, Roger Vaughan, and Professor Oshinsky said in interviews.

Others, including Dr. Offit, say the outcome was based on science alone. But all agree that Dr. Koprowski, by demonstrating that a live-virus polio vaccine could be safe and effective, paved the way for the [Dr. Albert Bruce Sabin (born 1906)] vaccine.

And it was [Dr. Albert Bruce Sabin (born 1906)]'s vaccine, even more than Salk’s, that brought about the near-eradication of polio worldwide.

“Sometimes,” Dr. Koprowski says tellingly in Mr. Vaughan’s biography, “Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski” (2000), “I introduce myself as the developer of the Sabin poliomyelitis vaccine.”

Hilary Koprowski was born in Warsaw on Dec. 5, 1916. He attended the Warsaw Conservatory and Warsaw University simultaneously, earning a medical degree from the university in 1939.

Late that year, after the German invasion of Poland, Dr. Koprowski, who was partly of Jewish extraction, left the country with his family. He studied music in Rome before moving to Rio de Janeiro, where he worked for the Rockefeller Foundation’s Yellow Fever Research Service.

In 1944, Dr. Koprowski arrived in the United States and joined Lederle Laboratories, a pharmaceutical concern in Pearl River. It was there, in the late 1940s, that he began his work on polio.

By the mid-20th century, the United States was reporting 20,000 to 60,000 new cases of polio a year, most affecting children. In 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had contracted polio as an adult, established what became the March of Dimes, which would finance the Salk and [Dr. Albert Bruce Sabin (born 1906)] vaccines.

“What you have to understand about Koprowski was that he was the leading polio researcher from private industry,” Professor Oshinsky said. “Had he come out of the university and had he been funded by the March of Dimes, I think he would have been a favorite of the virology community.”

But he seemed, at least at times, to roil that community, already skittish about polio.

In the 1930s, researchers had tested two vaccines made from killed polio viruses, in principle safer than live ones. But as it transpired, the viruses had not been killed entirely, and the vaccines paralyzed some children.

As a result, the idea of testing a polio vaccine — much less a live one — on humans was almost beyond contemplation by midcentury.

The first successful live-virus vaccine of any kind was for yellow fever, developed in the late 1930s by the virologist Max Theiler; for his work, he received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

The method Theiler devised for attenuating the virus involved injecting it into a series of nonhuman embryo cells, including those of mice and chickens. In the late ’40s, Dr. Koprowski wondered whether a similar method could be used to attenuate polio.

Because the cotton rat, a genus found in the Americas, was susceptible to polio, Dr. Koprowski injected the virus into cotton rat brains. 

“The thinking is this,” [Dr. Paul Allan Offit (born 1951)] explained: “As the virus gets better and better at growing in, in this case, a rodent, it would become less and less capable of growing or reproducing itself in people.”

The result was the grim gray cocktail Dr. Koprowski drank in the lab that day in 1948. He suffered no ill effects.

Two years later, Dr. Koprowski received a call from Letchworth Village, a home for mentally disabled children in Rockland County, N.Y. Fearing an outbreak of polio, the home asked him to vaccinate its children.

In February 1950, in the first human trial of a live polio vaccine, Dr. Koprowski vaccinated 20 children there. At the time, approval from the federal government was required to market drugs but not to test them.

Seventeen of the children developed antibodies against polio. (The other three turned out to have the antibodies already.) None of the children experienced complications.

Describing his trial at a scientific meeting the next year, Dr. Koprowski met with astonished displeasure. In an exchange recounted in Professor Oshinsky’s book, Sabin, who was present, accosted him, saying: “Why did you do it? Why? Why?”

Sabin’s objection was not to Dr. Koprowski’s testing the vaccine on cognitively disabled children — that was common practice then. It was to his having tested a live polio vaccine on any human being at all.

“Koprowski replied that someone had to take the next step,” Professor Oshinsky wrote, “so it might as well be him.”

In 1958, Dr. Koprowski administered his vaccine to nearly a quarter million patients in the Belgian Congo. “It appears to have been completely safe, almost 100 percent effective,” Time magazine reported.

(His work in the Congo came to renewed attention in the 1990s after two publications — Rolling Stone magazine and “The River,” a book by the British writer Edward Hooper — asserted that Dr. Koprowski had unwittingly spread H.I.V., the virus that causes AIDS, by injecting patients there with contaminated polio vaccines. The assertions have since been discredited.)

In 1960, after several live attenuated polio vaccines, including Sabin’s and Dr. Koprowski’s, had been studied, the United States surgeon general, Leroy E. Burney, announced the approval of Sabin’s. Tests on monkeys had shown it to be somewhat more attenuated, and therefore somewhat safer, than Dr. Koprowski’s.

“He believed they exaggerated the deficiencies and the dangers of his vaccine,” Professor Oshinsky said of Dr. Koprowski. “Hilary Koprowski’s rebuttal to Sabin would have been, ‘If you had started your vaccine when I started, in the late 1940s, there would be tens of thousands of kids who are not paralyzed now.’ ”

At Wistar, which he led from 1957 to 1991, Dr. Koprowski is credited with transforming the place from a moribund Victorian institution into a first-class research facility. Several important vaccines were created there under his stewardship, including one for rubella, developed in the 1960s by Stanley Plotkin.

Besides his own work on the improved rabies vaccine, which he helped develop in the ’60s, Dr. Koprowski was known for significant early work on the therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies.

Occurring naturally in the body, these antibodies help the immune system attack particular kinds of cells. Made in quantity in the laboratory, they can be used to combat a range of infectious diseases, as well as certain cancers.

Dr. Koprowski, who held faculty positions at the University of Pennsylvania, with which Wistar is associated, was later affiliated with Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia.

Dr. Koprowski’s wife, the former Irena Grasberg, whom he married in 1938, died last year. He is survived by two sons, both of whom received his vaccine as children without complications — Christopher, who confirmed his father’s death, at his home in Wynnewood, Pa., and Claude — and by five grandchildren and three great-grandchildren.

Asked publicly about the lack of recognition for his polio vaccine, Dr. Koprowski was courtly, saying the corresponding lack of hoopla freed him to focus on pure research.

His private feelings differed.

“I think that there was a great deal of hurt and jealousy on his part that he never got credit for what he discovered, and for the path that he blazed for others to follow,” Professor Oshinsky said. “He pretty much told me that when I interviewed him.”

Dr. Koprowski received many laurels, including the French Legion of Honor. In 2007, his work was recognized with a signal honor, presented annually for distinguished contributions to vaccinology.

The award is known as the Albert B. Sabin Gold Medal.

The purpose of this paper is to review some of our knowledge concerning latent virus infections, in the hope that such a survey of the distribution, variety and behavior of these infections may facilitate the study of the neoplastic processes in man and in domestic and laboratory animals. I shall purposely avoid giving a definition of latency, since, if a broad, ecological view of the phenomenon of survival of parasites in nature is taken, it becomes clear that the stabilization of the host-parasite relationship cannot be based only upon the multiplication of virus at the expense of destroyed cells. It is much more probable that, in many instances, a latent virus persists in its host-cell as an innocuous symbiont, with a capacity to shed virulent variants only in rare cases.' Thus, if the broader view is adopted, a paper on latency of viruses should really encompass all known viral infections of plants, animals and insects. This would obviously be much beyond the scope of this presentation. Therefore, following a brief discussion of the methods of detection of dormant viral infection, examples of only a few such infections will be described in detail and the others mentioned briefly.

Detection of Latent Infection :  An inapparent infection may become apparent and cause signs of disease in its host whenever the delicate equilibrium between parasite and host is upset. This may be caused by a change in environmental conditions, by a disturbance of the physiologic equilibrium of the host, or by any other factor or factors of a nature as yet undetermined.

More commonly, a dormant virus infection may be detected by a careful examination of either animal or plant tissues, the cells of which are suspected to contain these viruses. If the latter is visible and morphologically identifiable, then such methods as electron microscopy can be used successfully for that purpose. In other instances, transplantation of the material into other animal or plant species, with resulting signs of infection, may constitute proof of latency. The demonstration of a specific antigen in the suspected tissue by serological tests may sometimes be the means of detecting an inapparent viral infection.

Finally, if the latent virus is able to evoke an immune reaction in its host, detection of specific antibodies and/or resistance to reinfection with the homologous agent may be considered as an indication of persistence of the virus in inapparent form in the host.

Obviously, these methods and techniques are neither exact nor exhaustive but they cannot be improved until our knowledge of the intricate mechanism of infection of living cells with viruses becomes more comprehensive. There seems to be little doubt, however, that many instances of latent infection escape notice because of the inadequacy of existing methods of detection. These reservations should be borne in mind during the ensuing discussion. [...]

• In a previous essay describing scientific places of interest in Philadelphia, [1] I mentioned the Wistar Institute, located on the campus of the University of Pennsylvania just a few blocks from ISI. Wistar is the oldest biomedical research institute in the US. Although it has some cooperative arrangements with the university, Wistar is a completely independent organization.
• While this is the year of the Philadelphia tercentennial, in May we also celebrated an important silver jubilee - the anniversary of the arrival of Wistar’s dynamic director, Hilary Koprowski. The occasion reminded me that a tribute to him was long overdue. During the 25 years of Koprowski’s leadership, Wistar has become one of the foremost research centers in the world. And as this essay will demonstrate, he is not only a dedicated and prolific scientist, but a talented musician as well.
• [Dr. Joshua Lederberg (born 1925)] introduced me to Koprowski in 1958, the year Lederberg won the Nobel prize for his work on the genetics of bacteria. It is interesting to note that we also celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of "Current Contents" (CC) this year.[2] So at the same time I was launching CC/Life Sciences and the organization that would become ISI, Koprowski was beginning to assemble his new organization of top researchers at Wistar. Thus, we shared a common experience in “scientific entrepreneurship.”
• From the beginning, Koprowski was very supportive of ISI’s effort to make information retrieval more rapid and effective - first as a user, then, since 1964, as a member of the editorial advisory board of "Science Citation Index" (SCI). In 1968 he became a member of our Board of Directors.
• Koprowski is unquestionably one of the outstanding biomedical scientists of our time. Space will not permit a complete and detailed account of his accomplishments. He was the first to develop an oral polio vaccine and to administer it to humans.[3] With Tadeusz Wiktor and other co-workers at Wistar, he developed a new rabies vaccine that is more effective and less painful than the traditional Pasteur technique. [4][5] This discovery alone would establish him as a pioneer. But Koprowski has also studied the etiology of multiple sclerosis and of cancer. And he has pioneered the development of monoclinal antibodies with specificities for viruses and human cancers.
• Koprowski was born in 1916 in Poland. At age 12, he entered the Warsaw Conservatory of Music to study piano. He continued to study music part-time at the conservatory through his high school years and even while in medical school at the University of Warsaw. Two years prior to his graduation from medical school, Koprowski worked as a research assistant in the department of experimental pathology. It was also in medical school that he met his wife, Irena Grasberg. They were married in 1938. She is now professor of pathology at Temple University, Philadelphia. The Koprowskis have two sons, Claude and Christopher. Claude is now a physician specializing in emergency medicine in Florida, but I knew him as an excellent journalist before he decided to study medicine. Christopher is now a resident in neurology at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania. He is also enrolled in the graduate program at the university’s Wharton School.
• In 1939, Koprowski received his medical degree from the University of Warsaw. When World War II broke out, he left Poland for Italy. During the brief period before Italy entered the war, Koprowski volunteered as a physician for the Polish draft board-in-exile. Through this organization, Polish citizens living outside Poland could enlist in the armies of the Allied Forces. Koprowski also attended the Conservatorio di Musics Santa Cecilia in Rome, where he continued his music studies from 1939 to 1940.
• In June 1940, Koprowski left Italy and resettled in Brazil. An opportunity to pursue biomedical research in that country arose by chance. On the streets of Rio de Janeiro, he met Luty Kosobudski, a physician who had attended Koprowski’s high school in Poland. Kosobudski had returned to Brazil where he was born. He informed Koprowski that the Rockefeller Foundation’s Yellow Fever Research Service in Brazil was enlisting people to work in their labs. Before long, Koprowski was performing research in yellow fever and neurotropic viruses. His work was supported jointly by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ministry of Education of Brazil.
• It was during this period that Koprowski finally decided on a career in science rather than music. He explained thk decision to me in his office. “I gave a few piano concerts when I arrived in Brazil, and realized that I did not have the skill and education to go to the top of the profession. I did like to give piano lessons, but never considered that as a permanent career.”[6] But Koprowski never abandoned music. He still plays the piano almost every day. Each year at Christmas, he gives a concert for the Wistar staff. He brings sheet music along on his frequent business trips, and searches out a piano whenever he finds time. I admire his discipline and dedication. I found it difficult to do the same with my saxophone.
• Having decided on a scientific career, Koprowski left Brazil in 1944 to become a research associate at American Cyanamid’s Lederle Laboratories, Pead River, New York. Two years later, he was appointed assistant director of Lederle’s Viral and Rickettsial Research Program, a post he held until coming to Wistar as director and institute professor. At the same time, he was named Wistar professor of research medicine, and professor of microbiology at the University of Pennsylvania—positions that he holds to this day.
• Oddly enough, what attracted Koprowski to Wistar was that venerable institute’s lack of activity. Wistar was founded in 1892 in memory of surgeon Caspar Wistar and his colleague, William E. Homer. At first, the institute was primarily devoted to neuroanatomy, and later to studies in neurology, comparative anatomy, and embryology. But when Koprowski arrived, the institute was, as he puts it, “an empty shell. ”b In a situation that might have led others to despair, Koprowski saw unlimited possibilities. “That was the great attraction,” he told me, “to bring in the people you wanted and to build something from scratch. ”[6]
• Under Koprowski’s direction, more than 100 scientists have joined Wistar. Koprowski attributes his success in attracting talented people to his unique plan for Wistar: “My idea was that it would be a decentralized institution, with the director playing the role of scientist, rather than administrator. This gave the other scientists freedom to work on whatever they wished."[6] In spite of their independence, Wistar scientists collaborate closely with each other. Many disciplines are represented on each research project. However, the decentralized structure has made it easier for Koprowski to carry his own full research load. His extensive bibliography reflects this. He has published more than 500 papers, about 400 of these during his 25 years at Wistar.
• Koprowski’s outstanding contributions have earned him memberships in the US National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts. He is a fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, and the New York Academies of Medicine and Sciences. He currently serves as a consultant to the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization. Koprowski has been the Alexander von Humboldt professor at the Max Planck Institute, Martinsried, Bavaria, and a Fulbright Scholar studying ethology with Konrad Lorenz at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology, Seewiesen. This listing of honors and affiliations is by no means exhaustive.
• Peer recognition in the form of academy memberships usually correlates with citation frequency. Koprowski is no exception to thk rule. As a primary author, he was cited nearly 2,200 times in SC1 from 1961 to 1981. He appeared on our list of the 1,030 most-cited authors — including coauthors—from 1965 to 1978. [7] The 4,200 citations he received during this period place him among the top quarter of this distinguished group. He was also on our list of the 300 most-cited authors from 1961 to 1976. [8]
• Koprowski published his most-cited paper in 1962. That article, entitled “Transformation of cultures of human tissue infected with simian virus SV40, ” has been cited in over 270 papers since its publication. A bibliography of Koprowski’s most-cited publications appears in Table 1.
• Another very influential paper by Koprowski and colleagues described how the chromosomes of SV40 become activated in host cells to produce a complete virus. That paper has received nearly 250 citations since its publication in 1967.
• Koprowski continues to perform research at the forefront of biomedical research. He and his colleagues are investigating numerous types of cancer, chronic diseases of the central nervous system, rabies, and other viral infections. When we checked our "ISI/BIOMED" online data base, we found that Koprowski is the author of one or more papers in the 26 research front specialties listed in Table 2.
• Some of Koprowski’s most recent and exciting work involves monoclinal antibodies, which are highly specific disease fighters secreted by hybrid cells produced in the laboratory. These hybrids result from the fusion of a tumor cell and a healthy spleen cell (B-lymphocyte) that has been immunized against a given disease. The hybrids, called lymphocyte hybridomas, have both the spleen cell’s disease-fighting antibody and the tumor self’s capacity for indefinite survival. Monoclinal antibodies secreted from lymphocyte hybridomas are now produced in large amounts, and promise to revolutionize the treatment of a variety of diseases, from breast cancer to rabies. Monoclinal antibodies are also useful [or mapping the genes of defective chromosomes suspected of causing inherited diseases.

• In a 1977 article published in "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA (PNAS)", Koprowski, Walter Gerhard, and Carlo M. Croce reported the production of the first useful monoclinal antibodies. [9] These were secreted by mouse hybridomas to counter influenza virus. That article was cited 92 times from 1977 to 1981. Another PNAS paper on monoclonal antibodies defining antigens of human cancers [10] received 92 citations in only three years, 1979-1981. This paper is one of the core documents for the 1981 ISI/BIOMED research front specialty, “Monoclinal Antibodies.” In a 1980 paper in Nature, Croce, Koprowski, and other Wistar researchers reported another breakthrough: the development of human hybridomas that could be bred and “cloned” without limit. [11] Prior to this discovery, human spleen cells failed to survive in culture, and cells from rodents were used to produce hybridomas. This paper has already received 24 citations. Since antibodies from human hybridomas are more effective in fighting human illnesses, there is little doubt that the impact of this paper on future research will become increasingly evident.

• 80-2536      Analysis of CSF antibodies in multiple-sclerosis
• 60-1460      Carcinoembryonic antigen-release from human colon-carcinoma
• 83-0770      Cell-growth in serum-free medium
• 80-2775      Characterization of monoclinal antibodies to human melanoma-associated antigens
• 80-2175      CSF ICC profiles as diagnostic techniques in multiple-sclerosis
• 80-0395      Deoxynucleotidy l-transferase activity and characteristics of blast-cefts in leukemia
• 80-2015      Epstein-Barr virus-associated antibodies in nasopharyngeal-carcinoma
• 80-0341      Expression. regulation. movement and recombination of transformed cell-lines
• 80-0456      Globin M-RNA precursor
• 80-1035      Glycoprotein-synthesis and gene-expression of herpes simplex virus genome
• 8O-0413      Herpes simplex virus infections of nervous system
• 80-0131      HLA-DR antigens
• 80-0765      Host virus interactions during transformation
• 00-1428      Interferon-mediated control of natural killer-cell activity in tumor cells
• 80-0641      Immunochemistry of Langerhans-cells
• 80-2016      Immunological cytotoxicity induced by Epstein-Barn virus infection
• 80-0223      Immune-response studies in multiple-sclerosis
• 80-2024      Monoclinal antibodies to human tumor antigens
• 80-1766      Monoclinal antibody inhibition of cross-reactive cytotoxic T-cells
• 80-1436      Organization of Epstein-Barr virus DNA
• 80-2107      Production of drug antibody-conjugates in treatment of tumors
• 80-1187      Protein-synthesis in diphtheria toxin-resistant-cells
• 80-2549      Purification andcytotoxicity of ricins from ricinus-communis
• 80-0763      Role of glycoproteins and protein-protein-interactions in viral pathogenesis
• 80-2099      Somatosensory evoked potentials and central  afferent-conduction analysis in multiple sclerosis
• 80-1629      Suppression-mechanisms

• Although Koprowski is generally optimistic about the future of scientific research, he is concerned that young people are losing interest in science. “The problem of the scientific community today is that young people are not attracted to careers in science. Perhaps the funding cutbacks make them afraid they won’t find jobs in science. Or maybe science is losing the glamour it once had.”[6]
• Koprowski believes the solution lies in placing greater emphasis on gifted children, a topic I have discussed earlier. [12] As Koprowski puts it, “The United States has an enormous, though decreasing, amount of money for disadvantaged children, crippled children, and mentally deficient children. But there’s very little for really talented youngsters. If you pick out the excellent people, and from the very beginning cultivate an elite of magnificent scientists, this will attract others. Unfortunately, we are not doing this.”b Koprowski feels that the way in which schools in the US are currently run only stifles the curiosity of bright students and forces them to conform to a level of mediocrity, instead of placing them on the “road to excellence.”[6]
• Koprowski has also expressed the concern that students specialize too early in life, and forfeit the benefits of a broad education. [13] His emphasis on the importance of a broad, humanistic education is reflected in his view of science as a “creative art. ”[6] Not surprisingly, he laments the division between the arts and sciences in modem society, and feels that scientists have much in common with artists. As he recently stated in an interview: “A well-devised, well-conceived experiment is as difficult to construct as a sonata.. and the results one gets when an experiment works are
• as satisfying as the feeling one gets [composing] music, ”[14]
• Through his undying love for music, and his outstanding accomplishments in science, Koprowski has succeeded in bridging the two cultures. In spite of the present dearth of attention to gifted children, his example can inspire future generations of scientists. It can make even the most conservative supporters of education realize the benefit society reaps by supporting genius at an early age.
• In closing I cannot fail to comment on the personality of the man, which only barely comes through in a photograph. Whenever he walks into our board meetings, one senses that the room lights up. He has a marvelous sense of humor. You are always aware of his impatience with verbosity, and his ability to catch the most important details. In a business or scientific discussion you sense his need to be succinct, yet at the dinner table he is charming and relaxed.
• It has been a unique privilege for me to enjoy his friendship for so many years. It is a great pleasure to acknowledge this publicly for the first time. In particular, without his support, 1S1’s new building would not be a reality. The same can be said about the new 1S1 Caring Center for Children and Parents now under construction. I look forward to his participation in the opening ceremonies in September 1982.