(a) Scientific method

• Scientific cycle — observation; construction of a testable hypothesis; experimental design; gathering, recording, and analysis of data; evaluation of results and conclusions; the formation of a revised hypothesis where necessary

  • In science, refinement of ideas is the norm, and scientific knowledge can be thought of as the current best explanation, which may then be updated after evaluation of further experimental evidence.

• The null hypothesis proposes that there will be no statistically significant effect as a result of the experiment treatment.

  • Failure to find an effect (a negative result) is a valid finding, as long as an experiment is well designed. 

  • Conflicting data or conclusions can be resolved through careful evaluation or can lead to further experimentation.

• If there is evidence for an effect, unlikely due to chance, then the null hypothesis is rejected

• Scientific ideas only become accepted once they have been checked independently

  • Effects must be reproducible; one-off results are treated with caution.

b) Scientific literature and communication

• The importance of publication of methods, data, analysis, and conclusions in scientific reports so that others are able to repeat an experiment.

  • Common methods of sharing original scientific findings include seminars, talks and posters at conferences, and publishing in academic journals.

• The importance of peer review and critical evaluation by specialists with expertise in the relevant field.

  • Most scientific publications use peer review. 

  • Specialists with expertise in the relevant field assess the scientific quality of a submitted manuscript and make recommendations regarding its suitability for publication.

• The use of review articles, which summarise current knowledge and recent findings in a particular field

• Critical evaluation of science coverage in the wider media

• Increasing the public understanding of science, and the issue of misrepresentation of science

(c) Scientific ethics

• Importance of integrity and honesty — unbiased presentation of results, citing and providing references, avoiding plagiarism.

  • While judgements and interpretations of scientific evidence may be disputed, integrity and honesty are of key importance in science. 

  • The replication of experiments by others reduces the opportunity for dishonesty or the deliberate misuse of science.

• In animal studies, the concepts of replacement, reduction, and refinement are used to avoid, reduce or minimise the harm to animals.

• Informed consent, the right to withdraw, and confidentiality in human studies.

• The justification for scientific research and the assessment of any risks.

  • The value or quality of science investigations must be justifiable in terms of the benefits of its outcome, including the pursuit of scientific knowledge. 

  • As a result of the risks involved, many areas of scientific research are highly regulated and licensed by governments.

• The risk to and safety of subject species, individuals, investigators and the environment must be taken into account.

• Legislation, regulation, policy and funding can all influence scientific research.

  • Legislation limits the potential for the misuse of studies and data.