Module 3, Week 7

CLO 1 - Describe the diversity of students and its impacts on schools.

CLO 2 - Examine various educational models and the role of schools in communities and with government. 

CLO 3 - Analyze teacher practice and decision-making. 

CLO 4 - Explore the professional and ethical complexities of teaching. 

CLO 5 - Synthesize foundational elements of education into a personal philosophy of education and teaching. 

CLO 6 - Evaluate professional learning of pre-service and in-service teachers and educators. 

• Identify and describe the foundations (history and foundational concepts) of common standards.

• Explore and analyze the common core catalysts.

• Analyze common core state standards.

Evolving Conceptual Framework 

One "top-down," heavily structural perspective on society might suggest:

Society has norms and social structures that influence communities. These communities need schools to support the learning of their members. The schools are guided by policy and money, often directly provided by the local, state, and federal government. These policies and value structures influence teachers who must make professional and ethical decisions in classrooms with students for learning. 

Academic Vocabulary in the Field of Education

Curriculum - In education, curriculum refers to student experiences in a learning environment. This includes planned lessons, informal interactions, activities, and resources contributing to their learning. It often refers to a scheduled instruction sequence within a particular subject or study area. This includes learning goals, content, activities, assessments, and resources. Curriculum documents can outline the specific topics, skills, and knowledge students learn at each grade level, often aligned with learning standards. The government, textbooks, or the teacher sometimes set the curriculum. 

Education Reform - Education reform refers to the ongoing effort to modify and improve the education system. As society and people's needs evolve, how we educate our children also needs to adapt. Preparing students for future challenges involves adapting the curriculum to equip students with the skills and knowledge they need to thrive in a changing world. Improving student achievement is a primary focus of school reform. Reform efforts might target funding allocation, technology integration, or streamlining administrative processes. Reformers often focus on standardized tests, graduation rates, and other metrics. Education reform often aims to ensure equal access to quality education regardless of factors like income, race, or zip code. 

Standards Movement - The standards movement in education refers to a broad historical and ongoing effort to establish clear, measurable learning goals for students across different subjects and grade levels. These goals, known as educational standards, typically specify what students should know, understand, and be able to do.

Common Core - The Common Core State Standards (CCSS), often referred to as Common Core, is an initiative that established a set of clear and consistent learning goals in English language arts and mathematics for all students in kindergarten through high school, regardless of where they live in the United States. By setting national standards, the Common Core ensured that all students learn the same essential skills and knowledge at each grade level, regardless of location. This was important for preparing students for college, career, and life in a globalized world. The Common Core aimed to raise student achievement by setting clear and challenging expectations. By ensuring that all students have access to a high-quality education, the Common Core aimed to close the achievement gap between different groups of students, such as low-income students and students of color.

Primary Concept - We all want our children and learners to be successful.

Primary Concept - Having High Expectations Supports Learning.

Positive expectations can powerfully shape your experiences and outcomes, impacting various aspects of your life. 

Here are some key points to understand its power:

• Impacts perception and focus - When you expect good things, you're more likely to notice and appreciate them. Your mind tends to filter information through this lens, focusing on potential opportunities and successes. Conversely, negative expectations can make you hyperaware of hurdles and setbacks, potentially magnifying them.

• Boosts motivation and effort - Believing in a positive outcome fuels your drive and determination. You're likelier to invest effort and persevere through challenges when anticipating a rewarding result. On the other hand, expecting failure can lead to self-doubt and decreased motivation, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

• Shapes self-fulfilling prophecies - Your expectations about yourself and your abilities can become reality. Positive expectations create a cycle of confidence and growth, while negative ones can hinder your performance due to anxiety and self-imposed limitations. This phenomenon is known as the Pygmalion Effect.

• Improves well-being and resilience - Optimistic expectations are associated with increased happiness, reduced stress, and better-coping mechanisms in the face of difficulties. Believing in the possibility of something good, even amidst challenges, fosters resilience and helps you bounce back from setbacks.

The Pygmalion effect, named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, who fell in love with his sculpted creation, refers to the psychological phenomenon where high expectations lead to improved performance and low expectations lead to worsened performance. It suggests that our beliefs about others can influence their behavior and achievements. While robust, the Pygmalion effect doesn't guarantee success or failure. Individual factors and external circumstances also play a role. It's crucial to avoid manipulation or exploitation by setting unrealistic or unattainable expectations. The effect highlights the importance of providing positive and supportive environments that nurture potential and encourage growth.

Increased expectations:

• When someone (teacher, coach, leader) believes in your potential and sets high expectations for you, it sends a powerful message.

• This can boost your confidence and motivation and focus on achieving those expectations.

• You might receive more support, opportunities, and constructive feedback, further encouraging your growth.

Decreased expectations:

• Conversely, low expectations can have a detrimental effect.

• Individuals might experience decreased motivation, self-doubt, and anxiety, reducing their effort and engagement.

• They might internalize these low expectations, hindering their performance and fulfilling the negative prophecy.

Examples of the Pygmalion effect include students labeled as "gifted" by their teachers, often performing better than their peers, or employees who receive regular positive feedback and encouragement and are more productive and engaged. Athletes who believe in their abilities are more likely to achieve peak performance. 

Overall, the Pygmalion effect offers valuable insights into the power of expectations and their impact on behavior. By harnessing its potential responsibly, we can create more supportive and empowering environments that foster individual growth and achievement.

Check it out in the classroom in the video below.

Primary Concept - What curriculum standards? 

Curriculum standards are broad learning goals that specify what students should know, understand, and be able to do at different points in their education. Governmental bodies or professional organizations typically develop them for specific subjects and grade levels. Curriculum standards differ from the curriculum, which involves particular teaching methods, resources, and activities. Standards are often revisited and revised to reflect changes in pedagogy, content, and societal needs. Implementing standards effectively requires professional development, collaboration, and resources for educators. \Standards can promote consistency, coherence, and rigor in education. They can also be a valuable tool for communication and collaboration among educators. Critics argue that standards can lead to over-testing, narrowing of the curriculum, and pressure on teachers to "teach to the test."

Here's a breakdown of their key characteristics:

Purpose - Why do we use standards? 

• Guide educators - Standards provide a framework for teachers to design their curriculum, assessments, and instructional practices.

• Ensure consistency - They aim to ensure students across different schools and districts receive a basic level of education in critical subjects.

• Measure progress - By aligning assessments with standards, educators can track student learning and identify improvement areas.

Components - What do standards consist of?

• Broad goals - Standards define what students should achieve in a subject area.

• Content - They specify the key concepts, knowledge, and skills students should learn.

• Performance expectations - Standards outline what students should be able to demonstrate at different grade levels.

• Benchmarks - These are more specific indicators of progress towards achieving the standards.

Levels and Variations - How are standards developed and implemented?

• National - Some countries have national curriculum standards, like the Common Core State Standards in the United States.

• State - Most states or provinces have standards often adapted from national models; for example, Hawai‘i DOE subject standards

• Subject-specific - Standards are typically developed for core subjects like math, science, language arts, and social studies—for example, the Next Generation Science Standards. 

• Professional organizations - Some organizations, like the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), also develop subject-specific standards or teaching standards from the Hawaii Teacher Standards Board

Primary Concept - What is Common Core? 

Primary Concept - Where did Common Core come from? (Historically) 

The Common School Reform Movement, which flourished in the 19th century, particularly between the 1830s and 1850s, aimed to establish a free, universal, accessible, and nonsectarian public education system in the United States. This movement sought to provide schooling for all children, regardless of social class, religious background, or gender (although full inclusion took longer for various groups). This was a significant shift from the previous system, where education was often limited to wealthier families and focused on private academies or religious schools. The Common School Movement laid the foundation for the modern public education system in the United States. It contributed to increased literacy rates, fostered civic engagement, and opened educational opportunities for previously marginalized groups. Despite its goals, the movement still needed to achieve universal access fully. BIPOC ("black, indigenous, and other people of color" and aims to emphasize the historical oppression of black and indigenous people) often faced segregation or limited access to quality education. Additionally, the curriculum often reflected dominant cultural values and excluded diverse perspectives.

Some outcomes of the movement included:

• Standardized curriculum - The movement advocated for a standardized curriculum across schools, focusing on core subjects like reading, writing, math, and basic science. This aimed to ensure basic literacy and numeracy skills for all citizens.

• Professionalizing teachers - The movement emphasized the importance of professionally trained teachers with qualifications and pedagogical skills. This aimed to improve the quality of instruction and standardize teaching practices.

• Civic engagement - Education was crucial for fostering informed and responsible citizens in a young democracy.

Key figures in the Common School Reform movement included:

• Horace Mann - Often considered the "father" of the movement, he served as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education and advocated for reforms through reports, speeches, and educational publications.

• Emma Willard - An educational reformer who advocated for expanded access to higher education for women and founded the Troy Female Seminary, a prominent institution for women's education.

• Frederick Douglass - Though the movement initially excluded Black children, figures like Douglass emphasized the importance of education for African Americans and fought for equal access to public schools.

Horace Mann (1796-1859) was a progressive trailblazer in American education reform, earning him the moniker "The Father of American Education." Horace Mann's tireless efforts laid the foundation for the modern public education system in the US. He promoted free, universal, accessible, and nonsectarian public education, which profoundly impacted the future of education in the United States. Though limitations existed within the movement and in the time the changes were made, it sparked essential conversations about educational equity and access, which continue to be relevant today.

He was born in Massachusetts, and Mann initially pursued law and politics. He later served as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education (1837-1848), which ignited his passion for education reform. Mann was also a strong advocate for abolitionism, believing education was crucial for the fight against slavery. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and later became president of Antioch College, emphasizing social justice and educational innovation. His legacy lives on in the emphasis on universal access, standardized curriculum, and professional teaching standards.

Among his key achievements were:

• Advocated for Universal Education - Mann believed education was essential for all citizens, regardless of social class, background, or gender. He fought for a system that provided equal access to education for all.

• Championed Professional Teachers - Recognizing the importance of qualified educators, Mann advocated the establishment of teacher training schools (Normal Schools) to professionalize the teaching profession.

• Improved Curriculum and Instruction - He advocated for a standardized curriculum focusing on core subjects like reading, writing, arithmetic, and basic science while emphasizing effective teaching methods.

• Promoted Public Support - Mann actively engaged the public through speeches, reports, and publications, garnering support for educational reforms. He thought that people should know about the outcomes of education and learning. 

Primary Concept - Where did Common Core come from? (Contemporary) 

“A Nation At Risk” (1983) - The 1983 report titled "A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform." This report, commissioned by the National Commission on Excellence in Education and published during the Reagan administration, painted a stark picture of what was perceived as declining educational standards in the United States.

Main findings and warnings - What did it say? 

• Mediocrity - The report argued that American education was suffering from a "rising tide of mediocrity" and that the nation's once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, and innovation was being overtaken by competitors.

• Declining performance - It cited evidence of declining student achievement in math, science, and other subjects compared to other developed nations.

• Erosion of standards - The report attributed these declines to weak academic standards, lowered graduation requirements, and insufficient teacher preparation.

Recommendations for reform - What did it want to achieve? 

• More robust content - The report recommended strengthening high school graduation requirements in core subjects like math, science, English, and social studies.

• Higher expectations - It advocated for increased rigor and expectations for academic performance and student conduct.

• Teacher quality - The report emphasized the need for improved teacher preparation and qualifications and increased professional development opportunities.

• Leadership and support - It called for more decisive leadership and fiscal support for schools to implement these reforms.

Impact and legacy - Why does it matter? 

• Landmark - The report was a landmark event in American educational history, sparking national conversations and debates about education reform.

• Long-lasting influence - Its recommendations influenced numerous local, state, and national policy changes and initiatives.

• Criticisms - The report also faced criticism, including concerns about its overly critical tone, limited data sources, and potential narrowing of the curriculum.

No Child Left Behind (2003) - The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), enacted in 2001, was a significant piece of legislation in the United States that aimed to improve public education by holding schools accountable for raising student achievement, particularly in reading and mathematics. The No Child Left Behind Act significantly impacted American education, with positive and negative consequences. NCLB expired in 2015 and was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). ESSA gives states more flexibility in designing their accountability systems and focuses on broader measures of student success beyond just standardized tests. Its legacy continues to influence current discussions about accountability, equity, and the best ways to ensure all students receive a quality education. 

Goals and strategies - What did it want to achieve? 

• Increase student achievement - NCLB set ambitious goals for all students to become proficient in reading and math by 2014.

• Close achievement gaps - The law emphasized closing the achievement gap between different groups of students, such as low-income students and students of color.

• Accountability through testing - NCLB mandated annual standardized testing in reading and math for all students in specific grades. Schools not meeting yearly progress targets faced sanctions, including student choice options.

• Focus on disadvantaged students - Title I provisions targeted additional resources and support to schools with high populations of low-income students.

Impact and criticisms - What were the outcomes and perceptions? 

• Increased accountability - NCLB led to increased focus on standardized testing and school accountability.

• Improved achievement for some - Scores in reading and math initially rose, particularly for some groups of students.

• Narrowing the curriculum - An overemphasis on tested subjects potentially neglecting other vital areas.

• Teaching to the test - Focusing on test preparation instead of deeper learning.

• Unequal impact - High-poverty schools with fewer resources struggled to meet the standards, potentially widening achievement gaps.

Race to the Top (2009) - The Race to the Top (RTT) was a $4.35 billion competitive grant program launched in 2009 by the Obama administration as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. It aimed to spur and reward innovation and reforms in K-12 education across the United States. It was implementing strategies to improve the performance of low-performing schools. The program's focus on data-driven decision-making and evidence-based practices remains relevant to today's education reform efforts. Beyond state-level grants, RTT also included smaller competitions for districts and early childhood education initiatives. The program faced various legal challenges throughout its implementation. RTT's influence continues to be felt in education policy discussions. It paved the way for subsequent federal initiatives like the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which provides states more flexibility in designing their accountability systems. 

Goals and Strategies - What did it want to achieve? 

• Improve student achievement - RTT encouraged states to design and implement systemic reforms to raise student achievement, particularly in math and reading.

• Close achievement gaps - The program aimed to narrow the achievement gap between different student groups, particularly low-income students and students of color.

• Adopting rigorous academic standards - Aligning standards with college and career readiness.

• Improving teacher effectiveness - Evaluating and rewarding teachers based on student outcomes.

• Using data effectively - Utilizing data to personalize learning and identify areas for improvement.

Impact and Criticisms - What were the outcomes?  

• • • Improve student achievement - Raising high school graduation rates.

    • Increasing the adoption of rigorous academic standards.

    • Driving investments in teacher effectiveness initiatives.

    • Boosting the use of data in education decision-making.

    • The program primarily benefited wealthier states with more resources.

    • Its emphasis on standardized testing narrowed the curriculum.

    • It placed pressure on teachers and created high-stakes test anxiety.

Teacher's Corner - What is Technorationalilty in Teaching and Learning? 

The Foundations of Technorational Education Reform - What do reformers want to do to the teaching profession? 

• • 1. • Teaching should be technical and standardized 

       • We need to change teachers’ curriculum and instruction 

       • We need to use specific instructional mechanisms 

       • An effective and practical approach can be a rationalized, singular way to reach the predetermined goals 

The Mechanisms of Technorational Education Reform - How do reformers want to control the classroom? 

• • 1. • ensuring high-quality assessments accountability;

       • common expectations for all schools; 

       • meeting the needs of marginalized students in high-poverty schools; 

       • closing achievement gaps between minority and non-minority students;  

       • provide resources to schools in need; 

       • developing systems of sanctions and rewards for students’ academic performance;

       • increase standardized testing and measurement systems for the disadvantaged; 

       • providing high-quality, effective, research-based instruction; 

The Critique of Technorational Education Reform - What is wrong with this approach to teaching and learning? 

• Reform is an apparatus controlling the ways public education is delivered to culturally diverse and economically marginalized students 

• Rely on the implementation of standardized educational mechanisms to regulate the practice of teachers 

• may work to reinforce social structures, thereby reproducing and reinforcing inequality 

• imply a lack of respect for teachers as professionals as they appear to conscript and monitor teachers’ work; 

• discriminately target diverse and marginalized students; 

• complicate teachers’ decision-making power with prescribed curriculum and instruction.

• Little evidence from scholarship suggests that reforms have successfully reduced structural inequities (Berliner & Glass, 2014; Ravitch, 2013).

Teachers Can Resist the Technorational Education Reform - 

• Advocate for a holistic approach - Teachers should emphasize the importance of a well-rounded education that includes subjects tested on exams and liberal arts, physical activities, and creative expression.

• Foster a love for learning - Teachers can prioritize creating an environment where students feel excited about learning, encouraging curiosity and exploration. Incorporating literature, arts, and other engaging activities can help cultivate a genuine interest in education.

• Resist scripted teaching - Educators can resist rigid teaching methods, prioritizing exam preparation over meaningful learning experiences. They can create lesson plans that allow for spontaneity, student engagement, and exploration of diverse topics.

• Support student well-being - Teachers should prioritize students' social and emotional well-being. Understanding their needs and providing emotional support can promote a positive learning environment.

• Advocate for policy change - Teachers can engage in advocacy efforts to influence educational policies, emphasizing the importance of a balanced and comprehensive approach to education that goes beyond standardized testing.

Primary Concept - What is happening now? 

The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), signed into law in 2015, aimed to reform the previous No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) by granting states more flexibility and focusing on broader measures of success. Evaluating the research outcomes of ESSA, still relatively young, is ongoing. 

Positive Outcomes - What have we learned? 

• Increased state ownership and flexibility - States have more control over designing their accountability systems, leading to potentially more contextually relevant approaches.

• Focus on multiple indicators - Many states are incorporating diverse measures beyond standardized tests, like graduation rates, chronic absenteeism, and student surveys.

• Emphasis on social-emotional learning (SEL) - Several states are integrating SEL standards and supports into their systems, recognizing its importance for holistic student development.

• Collaboration and innovation - Increased communication and partnerships between stakeholders are emerging, potentially fostering innovative practices.

Challenges - What have we learned? 

• Data integration and consistency - Implementing diverse measures poses challenges in data collection, analysis, and ensuring comparability across states.

• Equity concerns - Ensuring fair and equitable implementation across diverse student populations requires ongoing monitoring and adjustments.

• Teacher support and professional development - Continued emphasis on supporting and developing teachers remains crucial for effective reform.

• Long-term impact on student outcomes - Assessing the long-term impact of ESSA on student achievement and overall school success requires more time and comprehensive studies.

Additional Resources - Where can you find more information about USA Federal Education Policy? 

• Center on Great Expectations - https://www.cge-nj.org/

• Evidence for ESSA - https://www.evidenceforessa.org/

• National Governors Association Center for Best Practices - https://www.nga.org/

• Department of Education - Every Student Succeeds Act - https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn

• Teachers' Decisions on Curriculum and Instruction: Standardized and Contextualized Aspects of Pedagogy in Diverse and Marginalized Contexts During the Era of Accountability (Cawdery, 2018)

Assessment 3.1 - The Teacherʻs Work - Part I - The Purpose of Instruction (Academics & Standards)

Module 3, Week 8 - Diversifying Instruction