Racial Massacres in the United States

Following the Civil War and into the early twentieth century, Black communities across the United States were systematically targeted by White mobs intent on preserving white supremacy. These acts of racial terror were frequently fueled by resentment toward African American political and economic progress, as well as allegations of interracial relationships or perceived breaches of the racial caste system. White aggressors employed tactics such as lynching, looting, and the outright destruction of Black neighborhoods in efforts to instill fear and suppress Black autonomy.

One of the most notorious periods of such violence is known as the Red Summer,¹ ² which spanned from late winter through early fall of 1919. During this time, White supremacist attacks and race riots erupted in over three dozen American cities. Significant uprisings occurred in Houston, Texas; East St. Louis and Chicago, Illinois; Washington, D.C.; Omaha, Nebraska; Elaine, Arkansas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Charleston, South Carolina. The Red Summer coincided with both the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan and the Great Migration, during which large numbers of African Americans relocated from the rural South to the urban North and West in search of safety and opportunity.

New Orleans Massacre (1866)³
In response to the Louisiana legislature’s move to reinstate Black Codes and suppress Black male suffrage, the Louisiana Constitutional Convention reconvened in New Orleans. As approximately 130 Black residents marched toward the Mechanics Institute—where the convention was being held—Mayor John T. Monroe, a former Confederate, mobilized ex-Confederate soldiers, white supremacists, and members of the city police to launch a violent attack. At least 240 Black veterans were killed, including 40 convention delegates, and 46 others were wounded. Martial law was declared in the aftermath, and several officials, including Monroe, were removed from office.

East St. Louis Massacre (1917)⁴
During a post–World War I industrial labor shortage, East St. Louis witnessed increasing racial tensions as 470 Black workers were hired to replace striking white laborers. On May 28, 1917, white mobs began randomly attacking Black residents, initiating a wave of violence that escalated on July 2. Mobs set fire to Black-owned homes and businesses and lynched Black residents. A later congressional investigation revealed that local police and the National Guard were largely passive in preventing or stopping the violence. Between July 2 and 5, as many as 200 Black individuals were murdered, and over $400,000 in property damage was reported. Despite the scale of violence, only 20 of 105 White rioters were convicted.⁵

Elaine, Arkansas Massacre (1919)⁶
In Phillips County, Arkansas, Black sharecroppers began organizing to demand fair compensation for their labor. When a white posse attempted to disrupt a union meeting, an exchange of gunfire occurred, which catalyzed one of the deadliest racial conflicts in American history. White mobs, supported by local authorities, terrorized the Black community. Historians estimate that several hundred Black individuals were killed, while no white attackers were prosecuted. In the aftermath, 67 Black residents were arrested, and 12 were sentenced to death. Federal troops later detained hundreds of African Americans in makeshift stockades where reports of torture surfaced.⁷

Tulsa, Oklahoma Massacre (1921)⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰
The Tulsa Massacre was ignited by an alleged incident between a young Black man, Dick Rowland, and a White woman in an elevator. Rumors of a pending lynching prompted 30 Black men to intervene, leading to an armed standoff with White mobs. The ensuing violence resulted in the decimation of Greenwood—an affluent Black district known as "Black Wall Street." Over 35 square blocks were burned, at least 100 to 300 Black residents were killed, and more than 10,000 were left homeless. Property losses exceeded $1.5 million.¹¹ Municipal authorities deputized white men to participate in the violence and supplied them with arms and ammunition. These deputized individuals were directly involved in criminal acts, including arson and murder, with the support of the Oklahoma National Guard, which also facilitated the mass arrest of Greenwood residents. Over 1,256 structures—including churches, schools, businesses, hospitals, and libraries—were destroyed. Despite the scale and brutality of the attack, no participants were ever prosecuted at any level of government.

Rosewood, Florida Massacre (1923)
On January 1, 1923, the Rosewood Massacre began after a white woman falsely claimed a Black man had assaulted her. In response, thousands of White men from across Florida descended upon the Black town of Rosewood, committing acts of mass violence, including arson and murder. While the precise number of casualties remains unknown, estimates suggest that hundreds of African Americans were killed. The town of Rosewood was entirely destroyed and subsequently abandoned by its survivors.