By 600 CE, the major empires of Rome, Han China, and Gupta India had collapsed. While there was a decline in trade, exchange along the Silk Roads continued and experienced a revitalization as new powers emerged in the postclassical period. One major development was the birth and rapid expansion of Islam, a religion that promoted trade and respected merchants, as the Prophet Muhammad was himself a merchant. In particular, the Umayyad Caliphate and its successor the Abbasid Caliphate invigorated trade and protected merchants. Muslim merchants became the new middlemen of the Silk Roads, and Islamic states profited from trade through their lands. The Byzantine Empire, which came to represent a continuation of the Roman Empire, would reach its greatest extent under Emperor Justinian and would find itself in conflict with the new Islamic powers. In the East, the Tang Dynasty of China experienced a golden age that helped revitalize trade and technological exchange, and this revitalization would continue under its successor, the Song. One of the most impactful disruptions of this period (up until the Mongol invasions) were the Crusades, which were as much about wealth and trade as they were about religion. As in ancient times, technology and religion would accompany luxury items across the Silk Roads. Nomadic groups as well as more or less "stateless" people like the Sogdians continued to serve as important middlemen and trade links across the Silk Roads. However, the rise of the Islamic world meant that Muslim dynasties soon dominated much of the Silk Road routes as they expanded into Central Asia. What's more, many Muslim merchants who traveled the Silk Roads settled permanently in the cities of the east, forming enclaves in China, India and Southeast Asia.
Byzantine Silk with Christian imagery
The Chinese had always closely guarded the secrets of making silk, but their efforts would be thwarted. Nevertheless, Chinese silk remained far superior and the most sought after.
"About the same time [circa. 550 CE] there came from India certain monks; and when they had satisfied Emperor Justinian Augustus that the Romans should no longer buy silk from the Persians, they promised the emperor in an interview that they would provide the materials for making silk so that never should the Romans seek business of this kind from their enemy the Persians, or from any other people whatsoever. They said that they were formerly in Serinda, which they call the region frequented by the people of the Indies, and there they learned perfectly the art of making silk. Moreover, to the emperor who plied them with many questions as to whether he might have the secret, the monks replied that certain worms were manufacturers of silk, nature itself forcing them to keep always at work; the worms could certainly not be brought here alive, but they could be grown easily and without difficulty; the eggs of single hatchings are innumerable; as soon as they are laid men cover them with dung and keep them warm for as long as it is necessary so that they produce insects. When they had announced these tidings, led on by liberal promises of the emperor to prove the fact, they returned to India. When they had brought the eggs to Byzantium, the method having been learned, as I have said, they changed them by metamorphosis into worms which feed on the leaves of mulberry. Thus began the art of making silk from that time on in the Roman Empire."
Xuanzang's route to India and back to China
Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist monk who had a dream that convinced him to journey to India to retrieve Buddhist texts and bring them back to China. He recorded his journey, which took him along Silk Road routes and cities. In this excerpt, he recounts his stay in the Turfan oasis in western Asia and his subsequent journey to India and back.
"[The king of Turfan] had various articles of clothing made suitable for such a climate, such as face-coverings, gloves, leather boots and so on. Moreover he gave him [Xuanzang] a hundred gold ounces, and thousands of silver pieces, with five hundred rolls of satin and taffeta...He gave him also thirty horses and twenty-four servants. The gold, silver, satin, and silk cloth would be for the kings and khans [as tribute] whom he would visit on his journey."
[Xuanzang then continued to the city of Samarkand, which was under Persian influence at the time.] "The capital of the country is 20 li or so in circuit. It is completely enclosed by rugged land and very populous. The precious merchandise of many foreign countries is stored up here. The soil is rich and productive, and yields abundant harvests. The forest trees afford a thick vegetation, and flowers and fruits are plentiful. The Shen horses are bred here. The inhabitants are skillful in the arts and trades beyond those of other countries."
[Xuanzang then continued his journey through several more cities before reaching Balkh in present day Afghanistan, through which several important trade routes crossed.] "There are about 100 [Buddhist] convents and 3000 monks, who all study the religious teaching of the Little Vehicle [a more conservative school of Buddhism]...The Masters (of Buddhism), who dwell to the north of the great Snowy Mountains, and are authors of Sastras [Buddhist scriptures], occupy this convent only...There is a figure of Buddha here, which is lustrous with [reflects the glory-of] noted gems, and the hall in which it stands is also adorned with precious substances of rare value. This is the reason why it has often been robbed by chieftains of neighbouring countries..."
[Xuanzang then reached India, where his caravan was attacked by bandits. Luckily they escaped and the local king had the bandits captured. After spending 10 years in India studying Buddhist texts, Xuanzang returned to China.] "A body of high officials clears the way to bring Xuanzang to the capital [of China]. They arrange for a huge group of monks to parade his books, relics, gold, silver, and sandalwood images through Chang’an. The procession the next day begins at the Street of the Red Bird and ends at the main gate of the Monastery of Great Happiness. All the monasteries send monks and nuns in their ceremonial robes for the occasion...The [Chinese] emperor said: “I am delighted that you went to seek for the [Buddhist] Law at the risk of your life for the benefit of all the people.
The Chiu-T'ang-shu, also known as the Old Book of Tang, is one of the most studied histories of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. This excerpt includes details about the Tang relationship with the Byzantine Empire, often referred to as Rome, and its capital at Constantinople. Here, the Byzantine Empire is referred to as Fu-lin.
The country of Fu-lin [Byzantium], also called Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], lies above the western sea [Indian Ocean]. In the southeast it borders on Po-si [Persia]. Its territory amounts to over 10,000 li [about 3,000 miles] There are four hundred cities. Inhabited places are close together. The eaves, pillars, and window-bars of their palaces are frequently made with crystal and opaque glass. There are twelve honorable ministers who conjointly regulate government matters. They ordinarily let a man take a bag and follow the king's carriage. When the people have a complaint they throw a written statement into the bag. When the king comes back to the palace he decides between right and wrong. Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they select men of merit. If an extraordinary calamity visits the country, or if wind and rain come at the wrong time, he is deposed and another man is put in his stead. The king's cap is shaped like a bird raising its wings; its trimmings are beset with precious pearls; he wears silk-embroidered clothing, without a lapel in front. He sits on a throne with golden ornaments. He has a bird like a goose; its feathers are green, and it always sits on a cushion by the side of the king...The walls of their capital are built of granite, and are of enormous height [the Theodosian triple walls]. The city [Constantinople] contains in all over 100,000 households [some 500,000 to 600,000 inhabitants]...Coming from outside to the royal residence there are three large gates beset with all kinds of rare and precious stones. On the upper floor of the second gate they have suspended a large golden scale, twelve golden balls are suspended from the scale-stick by which the twelve hours of the day are shown...In the palaces, pillars are made of se-se [lapis lazuli], the floors of yellow gold [probably bronze], the leaves of folding doors of ivory, beams of fragrant wood...
The inhabitants are in the habit of cutting their hair and wearing embroidered clothing; they drive in small carriages with white canopies; when going in or out they beat drums and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. The country contains much gold, silver, and rare gems. There is the Yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at night]; the ming-yüeh-chu [the moon-shine pearl]; the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening rhinoceros stone]; large conches; the che-ch'u [mother-of-pearl], carnelian stones; the k'ung-ts'ui [Jadeite]; corals; amber; and all the valuable curiosities of the West are exported from this country.
The emperor Yang-ti of the Sui dynasty [the predecessor of the Tang, 605-617 C.E.] always wished to open intercourse with Fu-lin, but did not succeed. In [643 C.E.], the king of Fu-lin [The Byzantine Emperor] sent an embassy offering red glass, lu-chin-ching [green gold gems], and other articles. T'ai-tsung [the ruling Tang emperor] favored them with a message under his imperial seal and graciously granted presents of silk. Since the Ta-shih [the Arabs] had conquered these countries they sent their commander-in-chief to besiege their capital city [Constantinople]; by means of an agreement they obtained friendly relations, and asked to be allowed to pay every year tribute of gold and silk; in the sequel they became subject to Ta-shih. In [667 C.E.] they sent an embassy offering Ti-yeh-ka [a highly valued western medicine]. In [701 C.E.] they again sent an embassy to our court. In the first month of [719 C.E.] their lord sent the ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan] to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute.**
**This last section can be confusing to read. Scholars believe that after the rise of the new Islamic power, the Byzantine emperor tried to persuade the Chinese emperor to join in an alliance to fight against the invasions of the Arabs. (source: historian Jialing Xu)
Tang Emperor Taizong
This interview supposedly took place in 643 CE. It is recorded in the History of al-Tabari (c. 839-923 . Fleeing from Arab armies, the last Sasanian emperor sends a messenger to the emperor of China. That emperor was the second ruler of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), Taizong (r. 627-649 CE), considered one of the greatest monarchs in Chinese history.
A messenger from the last Sasanian emperor went to China and sought help from the emperor. The Chinese emperor spoke to the messenger as follows:
“I know that in truth rulers must give aid to other rulers against those who overthrow them. So describe these people who drove you out of your land. I notice that you mention that they are few and you are many. Such a small number shouldn’t affect you in this way, with your great numbers. They can do this only if they are good and you are evil.”
The Iranian messenger suggests the emperor ask him any question he wishes to ask.
Emperor: “Do [the Arabs] keep their agreements?”
Messenger: “They do.”
Emperor: “What do they say before they make war on you?”
Messenger: “They call upon us to choose one of three things: To accept their religion—if we do, we will be treated as equals; to pay tribute to them, and make the Arabs our protectors. If we don’t choose these two, then the third thing is to be prepared for combat.”
Emperor: “What do they order people to do and not to do?”
The messenger tells him.
Emperor: “Do they themselves do the things they order others not to do?”
Messenger: “No, they do not.”
The messenger then tells the emperor about the clothing, camels, and horses of the Arabs.
Emperor: “If these people you describe to me were to try, they could destroy mountains. If nothing were to stand in their way, they would wipe me out! Make your peace with them and try to get along."
Tea serving in the Tang Dynasty
Akhbar Al-Sin wa’l-Hind traveled the Silk Roads in the 9th century, during the Tang Dynasty. Here he describes the use of tea in China. Tea drinking spread throughout South Asia, but it would not become popular in Europe until the 17th century. Tea use spread through the Tea Horse Road, which linked China to Tibet and India and included the trade of tea, salt, and horses.
“Among the important sources of revenue of the king [of China] is…. an herb which they mix in hot water and then drink. It is sold in every town at a very high price. It is called al-sakh. It is more leafy than the green trefoil and slightly more perfumed, and has a sour taste. They boil water and then sprinkle the leaves over it. It is a cure for them of everything.”
A 13th century painting of peasants harvesting rice, which became the staple crop of China.
Champa at the time of the Tang Dynasty, which preceded the Song.
When people think about the Silk Roads, they often think of the exchanges between major empires in an east-west fashion. However, Silk Roads extended in numerous directions and brought peripheries into contact with cores. Champa, in present day Vietnam, contributed to the success of the Song Dynasty and became a major trade empire as well as a cultural haven for Hinduism. In the excerpt below, historian Lynda Shaffer describes one of Champa's most important contributions.
“In the early part of the Song dynasty ... a new variety of early-ripening rice was introduced into China from Champa (by present day Vietnam) as a tribute gift to the emperor. This variety of rice was more drought-resistant and quick growing, allowing the production of 2-3 crops possible in some areas. The hardiness and productivity of various varieties of rice were and are in large part responsible for the density of population in South, Southeast, and East Asia. According to the Buddhist monk, Shu Wenying, the Song Emperor Zhengzhong (998-1022), when he learned that Champa rice was drought-resistant, sent special envoys [to Champa] to bring samples back to China.”
Po Klong Garai, a Hindu temple in Champa
The "Maritime Silk Roads" route describes by Abu Zayd
Canfu (likely referring to either the city of Quanzhou or Guangzhou/Canton in China) is the Port for all the Ships and Goods of the Arabs who trade in China...Many declare that the Navigation is performed in the following order: Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargo at Siraf (on the Persian Gulf)...from thence [they] make sail for Oman, where they are supplied with Cattle... the ships take their departure for India, and first touch at Kaucammali, which is a month's sail from Mascat [Oman]...The Chinese ships pay here a thousand drams [a currency] for duties [taxes]...From thence they begin to enter the sea of Herkend [Bay of Bengal]... They then steer through the sea of Sanji, and so to the gates of China...When a ship has got through the before-mentioned gates, she goes with the flood tide into a fresh water gulf, and drops anchor in the chief port of China, which is called Canfu...The city is adorned with large squares, and is supplied with every thing necessary for defence against an enemy, and in most of the other provinces of the empire there are cities of strength similarly fortified.
In China they use a great quantity of copper money...the only current coin. Yet their emperor has treasures like other kings, containing abundance of gold and silver, with jewels, pearls, silk, and vast quantities of rich stuffs of all kinds, which are only considered as moveables or merchandize [trade items]; and from foreign commerce they derive ivory, frankincense, copper in bars, tortoise shell, and unicorns horns, with which they adorn their girdles. Of animals they have abundance, particularly of beasts of burden; such as oxen, horses, asses, and camels; but they have no Arabian horses. They have an excellent kind of earth, of which they make a species of ware equal in fineness to glass [porcelain]...When merchants arrive at Canfu, the Chinese seize their cargoes...they then detain thirty per cent as duty [tax], and return the rest to the merchants.
The Chinese are dressed in Silk both Winter and Summer; and this kind of dress is common to the Prince, Soldier, and to every other person [regardless of class]...they are not very nice in [terms] of cleanliness, and wash not with Water when they ease Nature [use the restroom], but only wipe themselves with paper [this practice would appear strange to Arabs, who used bidets, hand held water nozzles, to clean after using the restroom]...
There are no taxes imposed upon the lands, but all the men of the country are subject to a poll-tax in proportion to their substance [they pay according to their ability]. When any failure of crops makes necessaries dear, the king opens his store-houses to the people, and sells all sorts of necessities at much cheaper rates; by which means famine is prevented...If any person inclines to travel from one part of the country to another, he must have two passes along with him, one from the governor, and the other from the lieutenant. The governor's pass permits him to set out on his journey, and specifies the name of the traveller, and of all that are in his company, with their names and ages; for every person in China, whether native, Arab, or other foreigner, is obliged to make a full declaration of every thing he knows about himself...By this means they prevent any one from carrying off the money or effects of others, or the loss of their own goods in case of accident; so that if any thing has been taken away unjustly, or if the traveller should die on the road, it may be immediately known where the things are to be found, that they may be restored to the claimants, or to the heirs of the deceased.
Trade and the rise of new industries like iron smelting, along with agricultural improvements and the expansion of the Grand Canal, helped China's cities grow. Artisans and merchants formed guilds to oversee their trades, and government run paper and shipbuilding factories expanded. The Qingming Scroll, pictured here, was painted during the height of the Song Dynasty and shows daily life in Song China.
A junk ship
Trade in the South China Sea during the Han Dynasty
Junk ships were used by the Chinese to trade in the South China Sea and later in the Indian Ocean. Evidence indicated that junk ships were used as early as the 2nd century CE, but they were most rapidly developed and used during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). The 3rd century book "Strange Things of the South" by Wan Chen describes ships capable of carrying 700 people and 260 tons of cargo.
“The four sails do not face directly forward, but are set obliquely [at an angle], and so arranged that they can all be fixed in the same direction, to receive the wind and to spill it. Those sails which are behind the most windward one receiving the pressure of the wind, throw it from one to the other, so that they all profit from its force. If it is violent, (the sailors) diminish or augment the surface of the sails according to the conditions. This oblique rig, which permits the sails to receive from one another the breath of the wind, obviates the anxiety attendant upon having high masts. Thus these ships sail without avoiding strong winds and dashing waves, by the aid of which they can make great speed.”
Sea trade during the Tang and Song Dynasties
10th century Baghdad
When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and became the dominant Islamic empire, the second caliph (ruler), Al-Mansur, decided to move the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. Baghdad became the center of the Abbasid Golden Age both commercially and intellectually. It sat at a perfect trade crossroad between Asia and Europe, and soon it was also home to scientists, astronomers, poets, mathematicians, musicians, historians, legalists and philosophers.
We consider it advisable that you settle [here]. ... Thus you will be surrounded by palms and be close to water. If, then, one of the districts should suffer from drought, or its cultivation be delayed, another would relieve the situation. Moreover, you are on the banks of al Sarat [a famous canal] so that supplies can come to you by the vessels plying the Euphrates; the caravans from Egypt and Syria will come across the desert, goods of all different kinds from China will reach you by sea, and from the Byzantines and al Mosul [Iraq] by the Tigris.
A map of the musk trade in the 8th century
The most potent and enduring aromatic in the world, called musk, comes from a rare substance held in the scent glands of several now-endangered Asian deer species. There is some evidence that musk was traded extra-locally as early as frankincense was, around 3500 BCE. By the sixth century CE, musk had become the most widely sought-after and highly prized fragrance in the world, with a single kilogram of musk worth twice the value of an equal amount of gold. (Today, it is worth three to four times its weight in gold.) It ahs had many used beyond its addition to perfumes and aromatic soaps. In India, it was valued as a cardiac cure for pulmonary diseases, and in Europe and Great Britain, it found culinary favor as an ingredient in baked goods, beverages, candies, ice creams, molasses, and puddings.
The best musk is the Sogdian, and it is that which the merchants of Khurasan purchase from Tibet and transported overland to Khurasan. Then it is carried from Khurasan to the distant lands. The next in quality is Indian musk; it is what comes from Tibet to the land of India and then is carried to Daybul, and then it is transported by sea to Siraf, Aden, Oman and other districts [all in Arabia]; it is inferior to the Sogdian.
Historian Fred Donner describes early Islamic conquests, which altered the trajectory of the Silk Roads. Many trade routes came under the control of the caliphates, which encouraged trade and respected merchants. By the time of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Islamic world extended from Spain to the outskirts of India.
During the conquest period the granting of gifts, which had been practiced by Muhammad, became more regularized. There was a system of direct salary payments ('ata-') to warriors serving in the Islamic armies. . . .Tribesmen in the Islamic armies who rebelled against the regime now did so at the cost of losing the stipends that the regime provided. Similarly, stipends were granted to some Persian nobles (dihqans) who cooperated with the Muslims in Iraq. In most cases, it appears that these individuals were required to embrace Islam in order to receive their stipend.
Many Arab tribesmen had fought as mercenaries during the early conquests; great wealth had been flowing into Arabia for decades, benefitting the Arabians, and the Arabs were already veteran soldiers. They had learned both Roman and Persian tactics and strategy and they were highly skilled...The Arabs were able to field armies of about 20,000 – 30,000 men, with a total force of closer to 200,000 by about 700 CE. They were Arabs from Arabia, Arabs who had settled in Syria and Palestine and were then recruited, and non-Arabs who converted and joined the armies.
The expansion of Islam
The Umayyad Caliphate
English historian Edward Gibbon described the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate (756-1031) and its cultural impact across Eurasia.
Under the last of the Umayyads [the second Islamic caliphate], the Arabian empire extended two hundred days journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary [Central Asia] and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean...The language and laws of the Quran were studied with equal devotion at Samarkand [Uzbekistan] and Seville [Spain]: the Moor [Muslims in Spain & Portugal] and the Indian embraced as countrymen and brothers in the pilgrimage of Mecca; and the Arabian language was adopted as the popular idiom [language] in all the provinces to the westward of the Tigris [River].
A map of Khazaria
The Caliphate of Cordoba, ruled by the Umayyads, where Hasdai lived. There were many Jews who lived in Muslim Spain.
A Khazar coin from the 9th century found in present day Sweden. The coin is inscribed with "Moses is the messenger of God" instead of the usual Muslim text "Muhammad is the messenger of God," providing proof for the Khazar conversion to Judaism.
The Khazars were a Turkic people who established an empire across present day southeastern Russia, Ukraine, Crimea and Kazakhstan. This empire extended across a major Silk Road artery connecting east and west, and it became one of the most important trade empires of the Middle Ages from 650 to 969 CE. In the 8th or 9th century, the Khazar rulers (called khagans) converted to Judaism. Jewish merchants had been drawn to the empire as it became a major trade center, and they were adept long distance traders and linguists, speaking the many languages of the Silk Roads. They used the many routes that crossed through Khazaria, likely introducing the Khazars to Judaism. Judaism was likely a political choice, as the rise of Islam butted heads with Christianity in the Byzantine Empire. The Khazars served as a sort of buffer state between the two and even held off the Muslim expanse into eastern Europe. But the trade riches of the Islamic world and the Silk Roads also attracted Vikings, known as Rus (for their red hair) into the regions around the Baltic and Caspian Seas, and their iconic longships allowed them to sail down the Volga and Dnieper Rivers, soon establishing a state, Kievan Rus. They were the fathers of Russia, and Rus would cause the downfall of Khazaria in 969 CE.
The following letter correspondence predates that fall by just a few years, and it gives insight into the Khazar state and its history, including conversion to Judaism. The correspondence is between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, sent by the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain, and King Joseph of Khazaria.
I, Hasdai...belonging to the exiled Jews of Jerusalem in Sepharad [Spain], a servant of my lord the King, bow to the earth before him and prostrate myself towards the abode of your Majesty from a distant land. I rejoice in your tranquility and magnificence and stretch forth my hands to God in heaven that He may prolong your reign....
Praise be to the beneficent God for His mercy towards me! Kings of the earth, to whom his [ Abd-ar-Rahman's, the Umayyad caliph] magnificence and power are known, bring gifts to him, conciliating his favor by costly presents, such as the King of the Franks, the King of the Gebalim, who are Germans, the King of Constantinople, and others. All their gifts pass through my hands, and I am charged with making gifts in return. [Ibn Shaprut, who knew several languages, received embassies from European kings to the Umayyad caliph. They often brought gifts].
I always ask the ambassadors of these monarchs who bring gifts about our brethren the Israelites, the remnant of the captivity, whether they have heard anything concerning the deliverance of those who have languished in bondage and have found no rest. [He was anxious to know if the "Ten Lost Tribes" of Israel existed as an independent Hebrew state anywhere.]
At length mercantile emissaries of Khorasan [a land southeast of the Caspian Sea in modern north Iran] told me that there is a kingdom of Judah which is called al-Khazar. But I did not believe these words for I thought that they told me such things to procure my goodwill and favor. I was therefore wondering, till the ambassadors of Constantinople came [between 944 and 949] with presents and a letter from their king to our king, and I interrogated them concerning this matter,
They answered me: "It is quite true, and the name of that kingdom is al-Khazar. It is a fifteen days' journey by sea from Constantinople, but by land many nations intervene between us; the name of the king now reigning is Joseph; ships sometimes come from their country to ours bringing fish, skins, and wares of every kind [The Khazars, great traders, got many goods from the Rus to the north.] The men are our confederates and are honored by us; there is communication between us by embassies and mutual gifts; they are very powerful; they maintain numerous armies with which they occasionally engage in expeditions." When I heard this report I was encouraged, my hands were strengthened, and my hope was confirmed. Thereupon I bowed down and adored the God of heaven. [Hasdai was happy: Christians could no longer say the Jews were without a country as a punishment for their rejection of Jesus.]....
I pray for the health of my lord the King, of his family, and of his house, and that his throne may be established for ever. Let his days and his sons' days be prolonged in the midst of Israel!
King Joseph sent the following reply to Hasdai, detailing much of Khazaria's history.
....I wish to inform you that your beautifully phrased letter was given us by Isaac, son of Eliezer, a Jew of the land of Germany [Isaac carried it through Germany, Hungary, and Kievan Rus to Khazaria.] You made us happy and we are delighted with your understanding and wisdom.... Let us, therefore, renew the diplomatic relations that once obtained between our fathers, and let us transmit this heritage to our children. [Joseph believed the Khazars had once had diplomatic relations with the Spanish Arabs.]
...I have a record that although our fathers were few in number, the Holy One blessed be He [this is a common name for God], gave them strength, power, and might so that they were able to carry on war after war with many nations who were more powerful and numerous than they. By the help of God they drove them out and took possession of their country. Upon some of them they have imposed forced labor even to this very day. The land [along the Volga ] in which I now live was formerly occupied by the Bulgarians. Our ancestors, the Khazars, came and fought with them, and, although these Bulgarians were as numerous as the sand on the shores of the sea [a reference to the Book of Joshua], they could not withstand the Khazars. So they left their country and fled while the Khazars pursued them as far as the Danube River. Up to this very day the Bulgars camp along the Danube and are close to Constantinople. The Khazars have occupied their land up till now.
After this, several generations passed until a certain King arose whose name was Bulan. He was a wise and God-fearing man, trusting in his Creator with all his heart. He expelled the wizards and idolaters from the land and took refuge in the shadow of his wings ... After this his fame was spread broadcast. The king of the Byzantines and the Arabs who had heard of him sent their envoys and ambassadors with great riches and many great presents to the King as well as some of their wise men with the object of converting him to their own religion. [The Byzantines and Arabs hoped to stop the raids of the Khazars by converting them and later make them allies through shared faith.]
But the King-may his soul be bound up in the bundle of life [a standard burial phrase for Jews] With the Lord his God-being wise, sent for a learned Israelite. the King searched, inquired, and investigated carefully and brought the sages together that they might argue about their respective religions. Each of them refuted, however, the arguments of his opponent so that they could not agree. When the King saw this he said to them: "Go home, but return to me on the third day…"
On the third day he called all the sages together and said to them. "Speak and argue with one another and make clear to me which is the best religion." They began to dispute with one another without arriving at any results until the King said to the Christian priest "What do you think? Of the religion of the Jews and the Muslims, which is to be preferred?" The priest answered: "The religion of the Israelites is better than that of the Muslims."
The King then asked the qadi [a Muslim judge]: "What do you say? Is the religion of the Israelites, or that of the Christians preferable?" The qadi answered: "The religion of the Israelites is preferable."
Upon this the King said: "If this is so, you both have admitted with your own mouths that the religion of the Israelites is better Wherefore, trusting in the mercies of God and the power of the Almighty, I choose the religion of Israel, that is, the religion of Abraham. If that God in whom I trust, and in the shadow of whose wings I find refuge, will aid me, He can give me without labor the money, the gold, and the silver which you have promised me. As for you all, go now in peace to your land."
From that time on the Almighty helped Bulan, fortified him, and strengthened him. He circumcised himself, his servants, attendants, and all his people. [Arabic sources say the royal family and nobility became Jews, but most of the commoners did not.][?] Then Bulan sent for and brought from all places wise men of Israel who interpreted the Torah for him and arranged the precepts in order, and up to this very day we have been subject to this religion. May God's name be blessed and may His remembrance be exalted for ever!
Since that day, when my fathers entered into this religion, the God of Israel has humbled all of their enemies, subjecting every folk and tongue round about them, whether Christian, Muslim, or pagan. No one has been able to stand before them to this day [about 960]. All of them are tributary. [But only about ten years later Joseph was defeated by Sviatoslav I of Kiev, 969.]
After the days of Bulan there arose one of his descendants, a king Obadiah by name [the name means "God's servant"], who reorganized the kingdom and established the Jewish religion properly and correctly. He built synagogues and yeshivot, brought in Jewish scholars, and rewarded them with gold and silver. [The Jewish scholars could have come from Baghdad and Constantinople.] They explained to him the Bible, Mishnah, Talmud and the order of divine services. The King was a man who revered and loved the Torah. He was one of the true servants of God. May the Divine Spirit give him rest!
He was succeeded by Hezekiah, his son; next to him was Manasseh, his son; next to him was Hanukkah, the brother of Obadiah; next Isaac, his son; afterwards, his son Zebulun; then his son Moses; then his son Nissi; then his son Aaron; then his son Menahem; then his son Benjamin; then his son Aaron II; and I, Joseph, the son of Aaron the King, am King, the son of a King, and the descendant of kings. No stranger can occupy the throne of my ancestors: the son succeeds the father. This has been our custom and the custom of our forefathers since they have come into existence. May it be the gracious will of Him who appoints all kings that the throne of my kingdom shall endure to all eternity.
You have also asked me about the affairs of my country and the extent of my empire. I wish to inform you that I dwell by the banks of the river known as the Itil [Volga]. At the mouth of the river lies the Caspian Sea. The headwaters of the river turn eastward, a journey of four months distance.
Alongside the river dwell many tribes in cities and towns, in open as well as fortified places.... Bear in mind that I dwell at the delta of the Itil and, by God's help, I guard the mouth of the river and do not permit the Rus who come in ships to enter into the Caspian so as to get at the Muslims. Nor do I allow any of their [the Muslims'] enemies who come by land to penetrate as far as Derbend [Derbend, an Arab city, was the gate through which the nomads of eastern and southern Europe hoped to rush through and raid the rich towns of Asia Minor.] I have to wage war with them, for if I would give them any chance at all they would lay waste the whole land of the Muslims as far as Baghdad...
You have also asked me about the place where I live. I wish to inform you that, by the grace of God, I dwell alongside this river on which there are situated three capital cities. The queen dwells in one of them; it is my birthplace. It is quite large, built round like a circle, the diameter of which is fifty parasangs. [The King lived in an island in the Volga; there were also towns on both banks.]
Jews, Christians, and Moslems live in the second city. Besides these there are many slaves of all nations in it. It is of medium size, eight square parasangs in length and breadth.
In the third I reside with my princes, officers, servants, cupbearers and those who are close to me. It is round in shape and its diameter is three parasangs. The river flows within its walls. This is my residence during the winter. From the month of Nisan [March–April] on we leave the city and each one goes forth to his vineyards, fields and to his work...
You mention in your letter that you yearn to see my face. I also would very much like to see your pleasant countenance and the rare beauty of your wisdom and greatness. Would that it were according to your word. If it were granted me to be associated with you and to behold your honored, charming, and pleasant countenance then you would be as my father and I as your son. According to your command would all my people be ruled, and according to your order and discreet counsel would I conduct all my affairs. Farewell.
Map of the Abbasid Caliphate
The city of Baghdad formed two vast semi-circles on the right and left banks of the Tigris, twelve miles in diameter. The numerous suburbs, covered with parks, gardens, villas and beautiful promenades, and plentifully supplied with rich bazaars [outdoor markets], and finely built mosques and baths, stretched for a considerable distance on both sides of the river. In the days of its prosperity the population of Baghdad and its suburbs amounted to over two millions! The palace of the Caliph stood in the midst of a vast park several hours in circumference.… The palace grounds were laid out with gardens, and adorned with exquisite taste with plants, flowers, and trees, reservoirs and fountains, surrounded by sculptured figures. On this side of the river stood the palaces of the great nobles. Immense streets, none less than forty cubits wide, traversed the city from one end to the other, dividing it into blocks or quarters, each under the control of an overseer or supervisor, who looked after the cleanliness, sanitation and the comfort of the inhabitants.
.… The different nationalities in the capital had each a head officer to represent their interests with the government, and to whom the stranger could appeal for counsel or help. Baghdad was a veritable City of Palaces, not made of stucco and mortar, but of marble... Along the wide-stretching quays lay whole fleets at anchor, sea and river craft of all kinds, from the Chinese junk to the old Assyrian raft resting on inflated skins. The mosques of the city were at once vast in size and remarkably beautiful. There were also in Baghdad numerous colleges of learning, hospitals, infirmaries for both sexes, and lunatic asylums.
Da Huan represents a unique Silk Road story. He was captured at the Battle of Talas (751 CE)—a battle that featured a face off between two Silk Road powers: the Abbasid Caliphate and the Tang Dynasty. He journeyed through the Abbasid Caliphate before returning to China in 762 CE. Consider here the stereotypes or biases in parts of his writing.
"Everything produced from the earth is there in Baghdad]. Carts carry countless goods to markets, where everything is available and cheap: brocade [a rich fabric woven with a raised pattern], embroidered silks, pearls and other gems are displayed all over markets and along street shops.
...We also went to Molin [East or North Africa], southwest of Jerusalem. One could reach this country after having crossed the great desert of Sinai and having travelled 2,000 li (approx. 1000 km). The people there are black, and their customs are bold. There is little rice and cereals, with no grass and trees on this land. The horses are fed with dried fish, and the people eat Gumang. Gumang is a Persian date. Subtropical diseases [Malaria] are widespread. After crossing into the inland countries there is a mountainous country, which gathered a lot of confessions here. They have three confessions, the Arab (Islam), Byzantine (Christianity) and Zimzim (Judaism). The Zimzim practise incest, and in this respect are worst of all the barbarians. The followers under the confession of Arab have a means to denote in law, while not entangling the defendant's families or kins. They don't eat the meat of pigs, dogs, donkeys and horses; they don't respect either the king of the country, nor their parents; they don't believe in supernatural powers, perform only sacrifice to heaven (Allah) and to no one else. According to their customs, every seventh day is a holiday (Jumu'ah), on which no trade and no currency transactions are done, whereas when they drink alcohol, and behave in a ridiculous and undisciplined way during the whole day. Within the confession of the Byzantines, there are beneficent medical doctors who know diarrhea; they could either recognize the disease before its outbreak, or could remove the worms by opening the brain.
The Battle of Talas is seen in the center of the map, with the Tang Dynasty to the right and the Abbasid Caliphate to the left. The battle marked the end of Tang expansion to the west.
The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, built 715 CE
A description of Damascus, which had been the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate.
“There are three kinds of merchants: he who travels, he who stocks, he who exports. Their trade is carried out in three ways: cash sale with a time limit for delivery, purchase on credit with payments by installment, and muqaradah (in Islamic law a contract in which one individual entrusts capital to a merchant for investment in trade in order to receive a share of the profits). The investor bears all of the financial risks; the managing party risks his labor.”
The Abbasid Caliph Al-Mamun sent an envoy to Byzantine Emperor Theophilos in order to obtain ancient texts.
Scholars studying at an Abbasid library, 1237 CE
The following description of Islam's "golden age," in the aftermath of the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate, comes from historian Peter Frankopan's book The Silk Roads.
"The Muslims' conquests had brought a vast web of trade and communication routes under their control...the wealth concentrated within the centre of Asia was astonishing...With this new wealth flooding into central coffers, heavy investments began to be made...Most striking of all, however, was the construction of an enormous new city. It was to become the richest and most populous in the world, and remained so for centuries...We know it as Baghdad...the political and economic axis linking the Muslim lands in all directions. ..Luxury items flooded in from abroad...This was a world that was highly connected, where goods, people and ideas flowed easily across thousands of miles.
...Wealthy patrons set about funding one of the most astonishing periods of scholarship in history. Brilliant figures were drawn to the court at Baghdad and to centres of academic excellence across Central Asia like Bukhara, Merv, Gundishapur, and Ghazni, as well as Islami Spain and Egypt to work on a range of subjects including mathematics, philosophy, physics and geography.
Large numbers of texts were gathered and translated from Greek, Persian, and Syriac into Arabic, ranging from manuals on medicine and veterinary sciences to works of ancient Greek philosophy...then there were materials brought from India, including texts on science, mathematics, and astrology written in Sanskrit that were pored over by brilliant men...Scholars took pride not only in gathering materials from all corners of the world and studying them, but also in translating them. "
Leaf from an Arabic translation of the Materia Medica of Dioscorides, treating the "Preparation of Medicine from Honey", 1224
This excerpt comes from Hayrettin Yücesoy's academic article "Translation as Self-Consciousness: Ancient Sciences, Antediluvian Wisdom, and the 'Abbāsid Translation Movement"
Merchants integrated Umayyad (661-750) and Abbãsid societies into the worldwide community in not only economic but also social, intellectual, and artistic life and fostered the growth of bustling urban centers. Circulation of caravans over land routes and merchant ships in the Indian Ocean expanded the trade network and contributed to dras-tic changes in human technology, habits, and diet across continents. With the wider production and distribution of an expanding range of products, the exploitation of new gold and silver resources, and the circulation of skills, scholars, artists, and artisans, commerce accelerated the change in material and intellectual life. Conversion, the expansion of urban life, social competition, and interaction in an empire whose Muslim part formed only a small percentage of a diverse population resulted in an immense social and communal diversification, material and cultural exchanges in many fields, as well as new arenas of com-petition for religious and cultural minorities to influence public life...Especially after the breakthrough in the local manufacture of paper, cross-cultural interaction manifested itself in the literary work that blossomed in the ninth century. Although political support by the caliphs and administrators since the late Umayyad times was crucial and essential, it could not have ignited what appears to be a conscious and sustained interest in ancient sciences had there not been a broader intellectual and ideological engagement in public life with translations.
A view of one of the two “Iwans” overlooking the courtyard of the so-called “Abbasid Palace” (“al-Qasral-‘Abbasi”) in Baghdad.
Arab writer al-Jahiz explains the outcome of the translation movement. He lamented that it was a shame that Arabic was such an elegant language that it was virtually impossible to translate it. al-Jahiz was the author of at least 140 works, including subjects like theology, zoology, and politics. He moved to Baghdad because the caliphs encouraged scientists and scholars, and Caliph al-Mamun had just founded the library of the Bayt al-Ḥikmah, also known as the House of Wisdom.
"The works of the Indians are rendered [into Arabic], the wisdom of the Greeks is translated, and the literature of the Persians has been transferred [to us too.] As a result, some works have increased in beauty."
Russia, which in the 9th century was Kievan Rus, is believed to have been settled by Varangians (also known as Vikings or Norsemen, from Scandinavia) who then assimilated to Slavic culture. According to the Primary Chronicle, the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangians and the Khazars (a nomadic Turkic group), both of whom had migrated into the region. The chronicle states that Slavic and Finnic tribes drove them out of Novgorod (Russia), but they tribes had no laws and found themselves at war constantly.
"They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly went overseas to the Varangian Rus'. … The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us". They thus selected three brothers with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated.
— The Primary Chronicle
According to the chronicle, this story is the foundation of Rus. Varangians, or Vikings, were notorious traders, with their iconic Viking ships that traversed rivers like the Volga and Dnieper, which both fed into Silk Road regions. According to Persian traveler Ibn Rustah, who visited Kievan Rus, the Rus exploited the Slavs:
"As for the Rus, they live on an island ... that takes three days to walk round and is covered with thick undergrowth and forests; it is most unhealthy. ... They harry the Slavs, using ships to reach them; they carry them off as slaves and…sell them. They have no fields but simply live on what they get from the Slav's lands. ... When a son is born, the father will go up to the newborn baby, sword in hand; throwing it down, he says, "I shall not leave you with any property: You have only what you can provide with this weapon."
— Ibn Rustah
The origins and migrations of Slavs, 5th-10th centuries CE
10th century Persian traveler Ibn Rustah visited Novgorod and described the enslavement of the Slavs by the Rus (the origins of the word slave comes from Slav). Slavic slaves were often sold to merchants in the Middle East and as far as Central Asia.
"As for the Rus, they live on an island ... that takes three days to walk round and is covered with thick undergrowth and forests; it is most unhealthy. ... They harry [attack] the Slavs, using ships to reach them; they carry them off as slaves and…sell them. They have no fields but simply live on what they get from the Slav's lands. ... When a son is born, the father will go up to the newborn baby, sword in hand; throwing it down, he says, "I shall not leave you with any property: You have only what you can provide with this weapon."
The trade routes of Jewish merchants, sometimes referred to as Radhanites, in blue
From the time of the barbarian invasions on Rome through the Crusades, Jewish merchants conducted most of the inland trade of Europe. The routes they followed linked European tributaries to the Silk Roads and their many goods, and the merchants operated between the Christian and Muslim worlds.
These merchants speak Arabic, Persian, Roman (Greek), the language of the Franks, Andalusians, and Slavs. They journey from west to east, from east to west, partly on land, partly by sea. They transport from the west eunuchs, female and male slaves, silk, castor, marten, and other furs, and swords. They take ship in the land of the Franks, on the Western Sea, and steer for Farama (Pelusium). There they load their goods on the backs of camels, and go by land to Kolzum (Suez, Egypt) in five days' journey...They embark in the East Sea (Red Sea) and sail from Kolzum to El-Jar (port of Medina) and Jeddah (port of Mecca); then they go to Sind (Pakistan), India, and China. On their return they carry back musk, aloes, camphor, cinnamon, and other products of the Eastern countries to Kolzum, and bring them to Farama (Egypt), where they again embark on the Western Sea (Mediterranean). Some make sail for Constantinople to sell their goods to the Romans; others go to the palace of the king of the Franks to place their goods.
Sometimes these Jew merchants prefer to carry their goods from the land of the Franks in the Western Sea, making for Antioch (present day Turkey); thence they go by land to Al-Jabia (?) where they arrive after three days' march. There they embark on the Euphrates for Bagdad, and then sail down the Tigris to Al-Obolla. From Al-Obolla they sail for Oman, Sind, Hind (Hindustan), and China. All this is connected one with another.
These different journeys can also be made by land. The merchants who start from Spain or France go to Sous al-Akza (Morocco), and then to Tangiers, whence they march to Kairuwan (Tunisia), and the capital of Egypt. Thence they go to Al-Kamla, visit Damascus (present day Syria), Al-Kufa, Bagdad, and Basrah, cross Ahwaz, Fars, Kirman, Sind, Hind, and arrive at China. Sometimes they likewise take the route behind Rome, and passing through the country of the Slavs, arrive at Khamlij, the capital of the Khazars. They embark on the Jorjan Sea, arrive at Balkh, betake themselves from there across the Oxus and continue their journey toward the Yurts of the Toghozghor, and from there to China.
The variety of items that traveled through the Muslim lands can be seen by reviewing the following list, which was written in the mid-ninth century by Abu Uthman bin Bahr. This list appeared in his pamphlet The Investigation of Commerce and gave an inventory of items that arrived in Iraq during his time. It also lists the regions that exported the items.
Sinbad with his goods, drawing from 1914
Sinbad the Sailor, a tale from One Thousand a One Night (also known as Arabian Nights), tells of an Abbasid era sailor from Baghdad named Sinbad who journeys through the Indian Ocean, visiting India and Sri Lanka. It is a fictional tale but is based on the experiences of Abbasid era merchants and sailors, revealing much about trade during this period. This excerpt comes from his first journey, when he befriends the king (called a maharaja). He desires to return home and is able to sell the goods he acquired on his journey through India.
Being a merchant, I frequented men of my own profession, and particularly inquired for those who were strangers, that perchance I might hear news from Bagdad, or find an opportunity to return. For the maharaja's capital is situated on the seacoast, and has a fine harbor, where ships arrive daily from the different quarters of the world. I frequented also the society of the learned Indians, and took delight to hear them converse...I took out what was most valuable in my bales, and presented them to the maharaja, who, knowing my misfortune, asked me how I came by such rarities. I acquainted him with the circumstance of their recovery. He was pleased at my good luck, accepted my present, and in return gave me one much more considerable. Upon this I took leave of him, and went aboard the same ship after I had exchanged my goods for the commodities of that country. I carried with me wood of aloes, sandals, camphor, nutmegs, cloves, pepper, and ginger.
A Muslim and Christian playing chess, unknown medieval artist
Jubayr was a geographer and poet from Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus). He was on pilgrimage to Mecca around the time of the Third Crusade. Here he describes relations between Christians and Muslims in the Holy Land.
One of the astonishing things that is talked of is that though the fires of discord burn between the two parties, Muslim and Christian, two armies of them may meet and dispose themselves in battle array, and yet Muslim and Christian travellers will come and go between them without interference. When the Sultan laid siege to Jerusalem, long the siege lasted, but still the caravans passed successively from Egypt to Damascus, going through the lands of the Franks [Western Europeans] without impediment from them. In the same way the Muslims continuously journeyed from Damascus to Acre (through Frankish territory), and likewise not one of the Christian merchants was stopped or hindered (in Muslim territories). The Christians impose a tax on the Muslims in their land which gives them full security; and likewise the Christian merchants pay a tax upon their goods in Muslim lands. Agreement exists between them, and there is equal treatment in all cases. The soldiers engage themselves in their war, while the people are at peace and the world goes to him who conquers.
Crusader coins from Jerusalem
During the First Crusade, Christians took control of Jerusalem and established several Crusader States in the Holy Land. In 1183, a tax was levied in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in order to fund mercenary armies. Much revenue was gained from Muslim trade caravans passing from Syria or Egypt to and from Arabia. There were 71 total taxes listed, but only a few are listed below.
The following is a list of taxes of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The list of articles taxed forms an excellent index of the character of the commerce conducted by the Mediterranean powers of the time. Most of these goods originated outside of Jerusalem and were transited through Muslim controlled trade routes, especially through the port of Egypt.
1. The old duties command that one should take at the custom house for the sale of silk for every hundred Besants, 8 Besants and 19 Karoubles, [Henceforth the coins are indicated by B and k] as duty.
2. For the duties oil cotton the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 10 B. and 18 K. as duties.
3. For the duties of pepper the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 11 B. and 5 K. as duties.
4. For cinnamon the rule commands that one should take per hundred 10 B. and 18 K. as duties.
5. For wool the rule commands that one should take per hundred B., 11 B. and 10 K. as taxes.
6. For the duties of alum the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 11 B. and 5 K. as duties.
7. For the duty on varnish the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 10 B. and 18 K. as duty.
8. For the duties on nutmegs or on nutmeg leaves, the rule commands that one should take as duty per hundred B. 8 B. and 1/3 by law.
9. Of flax the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 8 B. and 8 K. as duty.
10. For the duties upon cloves and the leaves of cloves the rule commands that one should take per hundred, 9 B. and 1/3 by law.
11. For the duties on Indian hens one should take the tenth.
12. For the wares which are brought by sea from the coast of Syria and which cannot be sold the rule is that they can be withdrawn and taken out of the country, but if the merchandise which cannot be sold be taken out beyond the chain they must be paid per hundred for as much as may then be in the country 8.B., per hundred, and for that which may have been sold duty must be paid to the custom house according that which is established for each kind and which one would have to pay. And be it understood that these duties shall be paid by the Saracens [Muslims] and by all the Syrians who may come with wares into this kingdom.
King Richard I's route on the Third Crusade (in green)
The Siege of Acre
King Richard I of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, led the Third Crusade. Here he describes the goods taken from a Muslim trade caravan during the Crusade. It is indicative of the types of goods carried from Asia to Europe at this time. The Crusades helped expose Europeans to the lucrative items and innovations of Asia and the Near East.
By this defeat the pride of the Turks was entirely cast down, and their boldness effectually repressed; whilst the caravan, with all its riches, became the spoil of the victors. Its guards surrendered to our soldiers themselves, their beasts of burden, and sumpter horses; and stretching forth their hands in supplication, they implored [begged] for mercy, on condition only that their lives should be spared. They led the yoked horses and camels by the halter, and offered them to our men, and they brought mules loaded with spices of different kinds, and of great value; gold and silver; cloaks of silk; purple and scarlet robes, and variously-ornamented apparel, besides arms and weapons of divers forms; coats of mail, commonly called gasiganz [armor]; costly cushions, pavilions, tents, biscuit, bread. barley, grain, meal, and a large quantity of conserves and medicines; basins, bladders, chess-boards; silver dishes and candlesticks; pepper, cinnamon, sugar, and wax; and other valuables of choice and various kinds; an immense sum of money, and an incalculable quantity of goods, such as had never before (as we have said) been taken at one and the same time, in any former battle.
Italian city-states, especially Venice, were starting to become great trading powers during the Crusades, but had been forbidden from trading with Muslims. This greatly hurt merchants, who petitioned the pope to allow them to trade non-military items.
We, therefore...commanding you under pain of anathema (excommunication) not to aid the Saracens (Muslims) by selling or giving to them or exchanging with them iron, flax, pitch, pointed stakes, ropes, arms, helmets, ships, and boards, or unfinished wood, do permit for the present, until we issue further orders, the taking of goods, other than those mentioned, to Egypt and Babylon, whenever necessary. We hope that in consideration of this kindness you will bear in mind the aiding of Jerusalem... for there is no doubt that whosoever violates his conscience in evading this order will incur the anger of God.
Village Fair, by Flemish painter Gillis Mostaert
During the Middle Ages, trade fairs were important centers for medium and long distance trade in Europe. Fairs were held at certain times during the year, usually tied to important religious occasions. The site of the most famous fair in the Byzantine Empire was at the city of Thessalonica. Merchants came to Thessalonica from all over the East as well as the West. The follow is taken from the Timarion. It describes the fair of Thessalonica as it was in the mid-twelft century, a period in which that city not only was of economic importance but was becoming significant culturally as well.
The Demetria is a festival, like the Panathenaea at Athens and the Panionia among the Milesians, and it is at the same time the most important fair held in Macedonia [part of the Byzantine Empire, north of Greece]. Not only do the natives of the country flock together to it in great numbers, but multitudes also come from all lands and of every race - Greeks, wherever they are found, the various tribes of Mysians [i.e. people of Moesia in the Balkans] who dwell on our borders as far as the Ister and Scythia, Campanians and other Italians, Iberians, Lusitanians, and Transalpine Celts [this is Byzantine way of describing the Bulgarians, &c., Neapolitans, Spaniards, Portuguese, and French]; and, to make a long story short, the shores of the ocean send pilgrims and suppliants to visit the martyr, so widely extended is his fame throughout Europe. For myself, being a Cappadocian [in present day Turkey from beyond the boundaries of the empire, [this country was now under the Seljuk sultans of Iconium] and having never before been present on the occasion, but having only heard it described, I was anxious to get a bird's eye view of the whole scene, that I might pass over nothing unnoticed.
...What I saw there was a number of merchants' booths, set up in parallel rows opposite one another; and these rows extended to a great length, and were sufficiently wide apart to leave a broad space in the middle, so as to give free passage for the stream of the people...
And if you are anxious to know what it contained, my inquisitive friend, as I saw it afterwards when I came down from the hills - well, there was every kind of material woven or spun by men or women, all those that come from Boeotia and the Peloponnese, and all that are brought in trading ships from Italy to Greece. Besides this, Phoencia furnishes numerous articles, and Egypt, and Spain, and the pillars of Hercules, where the finest coverlets are manufactured. These things the merchants bring direct from their respective countries to old Macedonia and Thessalonica; but the Euxine also contributes to the splendour of the fair by sending across its products to Constantinople, whence the cargoes are brought by numerous horses and mules. All this I went through and carefully examined afterwards when I came down; but even while I was still seated on the height above I was struck with wonder at the number and variety of the animals, and the extraordinary confusion of' their noises which assailed my ears-horses neighing, oxen lowing, sheep bleating, pigs grunting, and dogs barking, for these also accompany their masters as a defence against wolves an thieves.
The author, a Southern Song official named Zhao Rukuo (or Zhao Rugua, 1170-1231), composed this text in 1224-1225 based on information gathered from earlier Chinese sources and from foreign merchants whom he had interviewed. He had never traveled out of south China, but was stationed in the major port city of Quanzhou as a supervisor of maritime trade.
The local ruler wraps himself in plain cloth and goes barefoot. The people cut their hair and also wrap themselves in plain cloth. The land produces ivory, rhinoceros horn, su and zhan agarwood, sheng agarwood, and camphor. Foreign merchants who come to this country can trade with rice wine, rice, silk resist-dyed in the lily pond pattern, and porcelain ware. They must first calculate the value of their product in gold and silver, and then engage in barter at fixed rates. For example, one deng of rice wine is worth a tael of silver and two gold coins; two deng of rice is worth a tael of silver, and ten deng is worth a tael of gold; and so on...This country presents tribute to Sanfoqi (the Kingdom of Srivijaya) yearly.
The country of Foluoan (West coast of Malaysia) can be reached by sea in four days from Lingyasijia (Langkasuka), but one can also go by land...It has two Buddha images that are claimed to have flown there; one has six arms and the other four. When enemy ships try to enter this country, they are always blown back by the wind, and the local people say this is due to the power of the Buddhas. The Buddhist temple is roofed with bronze tiles and decorated with gold. They celebrate the fifteenth day of the sixth month as the Buddha's birthday, holding large processions with music and cymbals. Foreign merchants participate in these processions too.
The land produces su and zhan agarwood, lakawood, sandalwood, and ivory. Foreign merchants who come to this country can trade with gold, silver, porcelain, iron, lacquer ware, rice wine, rice, sugar, and wheat. This country sends tribute to Sanfoqi (Srivijaya) once a year.
In Sunda the people also engage in agriculture. They build all their houses using wooden piles and make the roofs with palm tree bark. The flooring is made with wooden boards, and the partitions are made of woven rattan. Both the men and women go naked except for a cotton garment wrapped around the waist, and cut their hair short to a length of half an inch.
The mountains in this country produce black pepper. The peppercorns are small but heavy and are superior to those in Daban ( Tuban ). The land produces wax gourds , sugar cane, calabash , and eggplants...The country of Jianbi (Kampar, Malaysia) is at an intersection of trade routes, so many merchant ships anchor there. It can be reached by sail from Sanfoqi (Srivijaya) within half a month. It used to belong to Sanfoqi, but later because of war, it installed its own king. The land produces tin, ivory, and pearls.
[Malacca] This country has two temples, one called "Holy Buddha" and one called "Self-sacrifice." When the king leaves his palace, he rides an elephant or a litter, attended by five to seven hundred armed warriors. The people of this country sit down when they see the king and stand up only after he has passed...There are officials...They manage state affairs together like chief ministers in the Central Lands [Song China]...Below them are three hundred or more scribes to whom are delegated the administration of the cities, state treasury, granaries, and army...The army has 30,000 troops who are also paid varying amounts of gold each year.
They do not set penalties for most crimes. The guilty party simply redeems himself by paying a fine in gold, the amount of which depends on the seriousness of the crime. Only robbery is punished with death...Their houses are grand and decorated with gold and jade. Visiting merchants are housed in guesthouses. Their diet is rich and attentive to cleanliness. When ill, they do not take medicine but only pray to gods and Buddhas. They have a long running feud with Srivijaya...This land pays tribute to the Central Lands [China]...This country's land is flat and well-suited for agriculture. It produces rice, hemp, millet, and beans but no wheat. They use water buffaloes for ploughing. The people pay a tenth of their produce as tax. They make salt by boiling sea water. The land abounds in fish, soft-shelled turtles, chickens, ducks, and goats.
Foreign merchants who come here trade with a mixture of gold and silver, as well as gold and silver vessels, five-colored resist-dyed silk, black damask, chuanxiong , angelica , cinnabar, melanterite , alum , borax , arsenic frost , lacquer ware, iron tripods, and blue and white porcelain ware. This foreign country exports large amounts of black pepper. Chinese maritime merchants, drawn by the prospect of big profits, often violate our government's law against the export of copper cash and smuggle it out for trading purposes.
The author, a Southern Song official named Zhao Rukuo (or Zhao Rugua, 1170-1231), composed this text in 1224-1225 based on information gathered from earlier Chinese sources and from foreign merchants whom he had interviewed. He had never traveled out of south China, but was stationed in the major port city of Quanzhou as a supervisor of maritime trade.
The people of this country have a purple (dark brown) complexion and their earlobes hang down to their shoulders. They are skilled archers and also good with swords and spears. They are a warlike people and ride elephants in battle, wearing patterned silk turbans. They are particularly devout Buddhists [here he has confused Buddhism with Hinduism.] This land is warm and has no cold season. It has plentiful food supplies of rice, hemp, beans, wheat, millet, taro, and vegetables, and food is cheap. They use cut pieces of various grades of silver as money and inscribe the seals of officials on them; the people use these for trade.
The land produces pearls, foreign cloth in various colors, and Tūla cotton....Many Dashi (Arab) people reside in this country.
[Gujarat, India] The people are forbidden to eat meat. They have four thousand Buddhist temples housing about 20,000 courtesans who sing and present rice and flowers to the Buddhas twice a day. [again, he is confusing Buddhism and Hinduism]...They have more than four hundred war elephants and about 100,000 troops. The king rides an elephant when he leaves his palace and wears a crown on the top of his head, while his attendants ride horses and carry swords.
This land produces large quantities of indigo , as well as flame of the forest resin, black myrobalan (hezi), and foreign cotton cloth of various colors. These products are exported to Dashi (the Arab world) for sale every year.
The author, a Southern Song official named Zhao Rukuo (or Zhao Rugua, 1170-1231), composed this text in 1224-1225 based on information gathered from earlier Chinese sources and from foreign merchants whom he had interviewed. He had never traveled out of south China, but was stationed in the major port city of Quanzhou as a supervisor of maritime trade.
Note: In Tang and Song times, the Chinese referred to the Arab Muslim caliphate and its various sultanates and emirates as Dashi, derived from the Middle Persian word for "Arab."
This country is militarily strong and its territory is large. The people are the most extravagant among all foreign countries. They prize felt [oriental] rugs . The capital city is called Mixuli (referring to Cairo, Egypt). It occupies a strategic position among foreign countries. Among the officials of this country there are chancellors who wear gold armor and helmets, carry jeweled swords, and stand on the king's left and right to protect him. The other officials are called grand marshals ( taiwei ). Each commands more than 20,000 troops. Their horses are seven feet tall and have iron shoes. The soldiers are valorous and their martial prowess is unmatched.
The city's streets are more than fifty feet wide. In the middle of each street is a roadway twenty feet wide and four feet deep that is used for camels, horses, and oxen carrying goods. On either side are sidewalks paved with bluish-black stone slabs of exquisite quality; these are for the convenience of pedestrians. The people's homes are like those of the Central Lands, except for their roofs, which are made of thin stone slabs rather than tiles. The people's staple food is rice and other grains, but they are fond of mutton steamed with thin strips of dough. The poor eat fish, vegetables, and fruits; their fruits are all sweet, not sour. They use grape juice to make wine. They also make sisu wine, which is grape wine heated with sugar and spices , and a very warming wine called meisidahua that is made with honey and spices . The richest families use measuring cups, not scales, when buying things with gold and silver. The marketplaces are noisy and crowded, filled with gold, silver, damask, brocade, and the like. Their artisans are all extremely skilled in their respective arts.
The king, his ministers, and the common people all worship Heaven, as well as a Buddha called Maxiawu. Every seven days, they cut their hair and fingernails. They fast and recite scriptures for a month at the beginning of the year, and worship Heaven five times a day. [Again, he is confusing religions here, this time describing Islam as a form of Buddhism. It was common in Song times for Chinese writers to assume all religions were some form of Buddhism.]
The peasants in this country can plant crops without any fear of floods or droughts. There is a river running down from the mountains whose water suffices for irrigation. The products of this land include pearls, ivory, rhinoceros horn, frankincense, ambergris , costus , cloves, nutmeg, benzoin, aloe, myrrh, dragon's blood , asafetida, civet oil, borax, opaque glass, transparent glass, giant clams, coral trees (i.e., red coral), cat's eye gems, champak flowers, rosewater, oak nut galls , beeswax, soft brocade with gold weave, camel-hair cloth, Tūla cotton, and exotic satin. The foreign merchants who trade in them export them...
The author, a Southern Song official named Zhao Rukuo (or Zhao Rugua, 1170-1231), composed this text in 1224-1225 based on information gathered from earlier Chinese sources and from foreign merchants whom he had interviewed. He had never traveled out of south China, but was stationed in the major port city of Quanzhou as a supervisor of maritime trade.
The country of Cengba (Zanzibar)...its people are all clans of the Dashi (Arab) people and follow the Dashi religion (Islam). They wrap themselves in blue cotton cloth and wear red leather shoes. Their daily diet consists of rice, flour dumplings, baked flatbread, and mutton. Their villages are nestled deep in hills and forests. The weather is warm, with no cold season.
The land produces ivory, gold ore, ambergris, and yellow sandalwood. Every year, the coastal regions of Huchala (Gujarat) and Dashi (the Arab world) send ships to trade with this country, using white cotton cloth, porcelain ware, red copper (gold-copper alloy), and red kapok.
The country of Bipaluo (Somalia) is made up of villages ruled by local strongmen...They worship Heaven and do not worship the Buddha (they are Muslims). This land has many camels and sheep. They produce ambergris, the tusks of large elephants, and the horns of large rhinoceroses. Some of the elephant tusks weigh more than a hundred catties (about 140 lbs) and the rhinoceros horns weigh more than ten catties (about 14 lbs). Merchants from every country go there to trade for tortoiseshell. In Dashi (the Arab world), only this country produces frankincense (used for incense).
There had been a well established Indo-Roman trade, and when Western Rome collapsed, trade with the Byzantine Empire (the successor state of Rome) continued.
A map showing the spread of sugarcane in the Middle Ages.
Italian city-states benefited greatly from the Crusades, in part because they became the bankers and financiers of the popes and kings involved in the Crusades. They also benefited from the increased trade in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Genoa and Venice were able to acquire colonies in the Holy Land. Colonies of Genoa and Venice in Palestine took on agricultural ventures in their concessions, especially sugar for export to Europe. Sugar manufacturing began in Tyre [Lebanon]. Sugar cane had been introduced in Palestine by the Arabs, and William of Tyre stated sugar was "very necessary for the use and health of mankind." Italian colonists utilized slaves or serfs of Arab or Syrian origin, or local serfs, to work the sugar fields. This sugar exploitation system could be considered a precursor to the sugar plantations in the Atlantic and later in the Americas.
Silk continued to be one of the most valued commodities on the Silk Road. Even though Nestorian Christian monks had smuggled silk making secrets into the Byzantine Empire around 550 CE, Chinese silk was still the superior, and preferred, silk. This silk textile from the 8th or 9th century shows the famous horses of Central Asia.
The colossal Buddha, located in present day Afghanistan, played an important role in the diffusion of the Buddha image throughout East Asia. Built in the 6th century, its huge size (175 ft.) impressed travelers like Xuanzang. Some probably took home small “souvenir” replicas of the statue. Because of this, its appearance and style influenced Buddhist sculpture in China and Japan. Unfortunately it was destroyed by the Taliban in 2001.
Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province, China. They were carved in several phases, one of which was during the early Tang Dynasty, when Chinese Buddhism flourished.
Figurines of foreign dignitaries sent to China from the West. Although they are from the West, they are dressed in traditional Tang clothing.
The Tang emperors expanded China's influence over several tribute states, including Kashmir, Nepal, Khotan, Kucha, Kashgar, Japan, Korea, and Champa (present day Vietnam). As the Silk Roads continued to thrive, kingdoms sent envoys to China to pay tribute.
A map of the Church of the East (Nestorian Church) in the Middle Ages.
The Church of the East, also known as the Nestorian Church, was one of the three major branches of Christianity to emerge in the 5th century. One of the major teachings of the Nestorian Church was that Christ had both a divine and a human nature, which was at odds with Catholic Church doctrines. It became the national church of the Persian Sasanid Empire in 410 CE, and after 500 CE monks and travelers spread Nestorianism as far as China in the medieval period.
Fragments of silk from Persia found in a Viking burial
Archaeologists have found an abundance of silk in Viking graves, indicating their participation in long distance trade. Silk has been found at Viking sites in Scandinavian countries as well as in Russia, which was settled by Vikings in the 9th and 10th centuries. Studies indicate that much of the silk was bought directly from Persia, but the Byzantine Empire could have also been a source of some of the silk.
A Tang Dynasty miniature of Sogdian musicians on a camel, found in the tomb of a Tang general
One of the first references to the Sogdians dates to the fifth century BCE. They were known for their importance on the trade routes that crisscrossed Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Japan. The Sogdian homeland, in present-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, was famous for its bountiful oases that served as crucial stopovers between expansive deserts and rugged mountains.
The Sogdians traded silk from China, horses from Uzbekistan, gemstones from India, musk from Tibet, and furs from the northern steppes. Skilled artisans, they made and sold luxurious objects, particularly metalwork and textiles, across the Asian steppe and into China. They also exported fashions, dances, and music traditions. In addition to serving as diplomats and translators, the Sogdians were instrumental in spreading Buddhism, Christianity, and Manichaeism, a dualistic Iranian religion founded in the third century CE. The Sogdians largely disappeared by the eighth century, and their language, architecture, and history were lost to time.
A lion motif on a Sogdian silk from Bukhara, a major Silk Road city in present day Uzbekistan and part of the Sogdian homeland, 8th century
Manuscripts and prints obtained by Aurel Stein from the “Library Cave,” no. 17 of the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang. At the bottom is the earliest complete printed book, a copy of the Diamond Sutra dated 868 CE
Paper, which is a mat of cellulose fibers that have been beaten in water and collected on a screen and dried, was invented in China before the 1st century BCE. Buddhist monks and missionaries, who started using paper for copying sutras and other Buddhist writings, carried paper and papermaking from China to Korea, Japan and Central Asia on their way to India. Paper was unknown in the Near East and Mediterranean until the coming of Islam. Muslim merchants and trade links helped bring paper to the West, especially since it could be used to make copies of the Quran. Papermaking first appeared in Baghdad in the 8th century. From Iraq, papermaking was carried to Syria, then Egypt, across North Africa to Morocco and eventually to Spain, where its use there is first recorded by a tenth-century traveler. The first sheets of “Arab” paper appear in Spanish Christian manuscripts of the late tenth century. Paper facilitated the spread of knowledge, coinciding with Islam's [and China's] golden age of science, literature and innovation.
Sultanhanı was built eight centuries ago by Anatolian Seljuk Sultan Alaaddin Keykubat on the Silk Road to serve as an accommodation and a secure point for those travelling the trade route.
Caravanserais were havens in which caravans could take shelter, similar to inns or hostels. They have their origins in the nomadic lifestyles of the Turkish tribes of Central Asia. Early caravanserais were generally simple dormitories that offered travelers food and a place to sleep. By the 7th century, these simple dormitories had developed into more complex establishments called ribat, a word that may be translated as "inn." There is evidence that hundreds of these ribats were built. The culmination of this line of development is the massive caravanserais that the Seljuks built in Anatolia. The Seljuks were Turks from present day Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan who converted to Islam in 985, as they migrated into Persia, ultimately taking control from the Abbasids. Caravanserais were huge accommodations, providing shelter, food and drink for a caravan's full complement of people, animals, and cargo. They could also provide maintenance, treatment, and care for caravans. They were arranged along trade routes at intervals that were calculated in view of the amount of distance that a caravan could be expected to cover in a single day. This distance was called menzil in Turkish, a word that means, among other things, "journey" in its archaic sense of "a day's travel". Caravanserais became commonplace across the Silk Roads.
A page from al-Khwarizmi's Algebra
During the 9th and 10th centuries, Arabic works on mathematics built on Greek and Indian mathematics. Important progress was made, such as full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematized study of algebra, and advances in geometry and trigonometry. Perhaps the most important mathematician was al-Khwarizmi, who brought the Hindu numerical system, which included zero, to the west. Soon, Roman numerals were replaced with Arabic numerals, making complex math possible. Al-Khwarizmi's work gave rise to modern algebra, which drastically changed the ways mathematics could be applied. The scholar al-Tusi made contributions to the development of trigonometry, including the law of sines.
A page from Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine showing the steps of medical treatment, including examination, consultation, and prescription.
The Arab physician al-Zahrawi is known as "the father of surgery." He described the first mastectomy to treat breast cancer and performed the first thyroidectomy. He also compiled a medical texts of almost 300 medical instruments and their uses. Scholar Ibn Sina published The Canon of Medicine, which details hundreds of diseases and treatments. It was used by medical students in Europe for hundreds of years. Arabic translations of ancient Greek medical texts, especially those of Galen and Hippocrates, helped Europe "rediscover" Hellenic medicine.
A giraffe from Kitāb al-Hayawān (Book of the Animals) by al-Jāḥiẓ.
A page from al-Jāḥiẓ's Kitāb al-Hayawān depicting an ostrich in a nest with eggs.
Al-Jahiz wrote numerous books on animals and even wrote what some scholars consider to be an early account of evolution and natural selection. His Book of the Animals is a seven volume encyclopedia of descriptions and proverbs describing over 350 species of animals. His passage describing struggle for existence among animals is considered by some to be an early description of natural selection:
"The rat goes out for its food, and is clever in getting it, for it eats all animals inferior to it in strength", and in turn, it "has to avoid snakes and birds and serpents of prey, who look for it in order to devour it" and are stronger than the rat. Mosquitos "know instinctively that blood is the thing which makes them live" and when they see an animal, "they know that the skin has been fashioned to serve them as food". In turn, flies hunt the mosquito "which is the food that they like best", and predators eat the flies. "All animals, in short, can not exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn. Every weak animal devours those weaker than itself. Strong animals cannot escape being devoured by other animals stronger than they. And in this respect, men do not differ from animals, some with respect to others, although they do not arrive at the same extremes. In short, God has disposed some human beings as a cause of life for others, and likewise, he has disposed the latter as a cause of the death of the former."
Huizi, the official banknote of the Song Dynasty, was issued in 1160 CE.
To avoid having to carry thousands of strings of coins long distances, merchants in late Tang times (c. 900 CE) started trading receipts from deposit shops where they had left money or goods. In the 1120s, the Song Dynasty government took over the system, producing the world’s first government-issued paper money. Paper money would later catch on in the west.
A Song era porcelain jar showing children playing
We call nice dinnerware “china” for a reason. Song kilns produced many kinds of cups, bowls, and plates, as well as boxes, ink slabs, and pillows (headrests). Some kilns could produce as many as 20,000 objects a day for sale at home and abroad. Porcelain, along with silk, was in high demand all over the world.
Pi Sheng of the Song Dynasty invented movable type printing long before Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press first appeared in Europe in the 1400s. Sheng's printing methods improved on earlier printing from the Tang Dynasty. Movable type printing allowed large numbers of texts to be published, contributing to a growing literacy rate. Large numbers of Confucian texts were printed, along with poems, literary works, and guides for things like agriculture and medicine.
Some of the contents of the Spillings Hoard. The larger pieces are silver bangles, which were referred to as "ring money."
Gotland, the location of the treasure
The location of some of the findings at Spillings
Spillings Hoard is the largest Viking treasure found, consisting of 14,295 coins in Gotland, a island off the coast of Sweden. Of the 14,295 coins found, 14,200 were Islamic dirhams, four were Nordic, one was Byzantine and 23 were from Persia. The earliest, a Persian coin, dates from 539 and the latest from 870. Most were hidden under the floorboards of a Viking house sometime during the 9th century.
The Tea Horse Road was a network of caravan trade routes that were part of the Silk Roads. They linked China and South Asia and were instrumental in the spread of Buddhism. Its name comes from the fact that the Chinese would often trade tea for ponies in Tibet. Horses were instrumental in fighting nomads who often threatened China's borders.
Çarıklı Kilise (the Church with Sandals), cut into rock
The Rock Chapel of Elmalı Kilise (or the Apple Church), built 1050 CE
Goreme is a town in Cappadocia in Anatolia (present day Turkey). It was one of the largest provinces of the Roman Empire, and during the 4th century, Christianity expanded in this region thanks to the Cappadocian Fathers, three bishops from the Eastern Roman Empire. Over time, many Armenian Christians dominated the region. The area is surrounded by soft rocks that can easily be carved to form houses and other structures, so Christians carved churches into the rock. This decision was also defensive—this region was a site of frequent raids and warfare. During the 9th and 10th centuries, as part of the Byzantine Empire, it was a critical frontier against the Muslim conquests. The churches contain much of the frescoes characteristic of the Eastern orthodox Church, which was the church of the Byzantine Empire. The distinguishing geometric patterns are also seen throughout the region.
Geometric patterns inside St. Barabara Church
A map of the slave trade in the Middle Ages
Slavery existed across Afro-Eurasia throughout the Middle Ages. In Europe in the Early Middle Ages, slavery mostly existed as a continuation of slavery during Roman times. After the rise of Islam, demand for slaves in the Islamic world dominated much of the slave trade, but slaves were also in demand in Europe. The Church forbade the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians, so many Christian merchants began enslaving Slavs and other Eastern Europeans. Venice and Genoa established slave trading hubs, acquiring slaves from Kievan Rus. The Vikings of Rus also raided Finland and other Baltic regions for slaves to sell as far as Central Asia. Jewish merchants were also central in the slave trade, especially since they tended to move freely between Christian and Islamic worlds. And ss a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery.
The remains of the "Silk Road Bridge"
The entrance to Ani
The walls of Ani
The city of Ani was the capital of a medieval Armenian kingdom in present day Armenia and eastern Turkey. In the 10th century, it stood at the crossroads of various trade routes and became a major stopping point on the Silk Roads. Armenians had converted to Christianity during Roman times, and Ani was known as "the city of 1,001 churches," many of which had Gothic architecture that influenced the Gothic cathedrals of Europe. By 1000 CE, Ani had a population of 100,000, making it larger than the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. In the 10th or 11th century, a bridge was built across the Akhurian River, linking Armenia and Turkey and therefore providing a crucial connection on the Silk Roads and earning the bridge the nickname "Silk Road Bridge." Evidence of caravanserais, which were essentially roadside inns for Silk Road travelers and caravans, can still be found in the ruins of the city. Because it was such a prized and wealthy city, the Mongols targeted and sacked the city in 1236. It never recovered. As of 2020, the Turkish government planned to rebuild the bridge, according to one Turkish Member of Parliament: “One of the important features of Ani is that it is located on the Silk Road. God willing, the General Department of Land Roads will rebuild this historic bridge over Akhuryan, which closes the Silk Road and crosses the Armenian-Turkish border, just as it rebuilt the other historic bridges."
The Cathedral of Ani