The Kangxi Emperor (China)

The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty and one of the longest-reigning monarchs in Chinese history. His reign is often considered a golden age of stability and prosperity for China, and he is often considered one the China's greatest emperors. His rule set the stage for the High Qing era of expansion and prosperity that continued under his successors.

Consolidation & Administration

Kangxi came to the throne at just 15, but he already set his sights on the consolidation of his authority. One of his first significant acts was removing Oboi, a powerful regent who had dominated the court. The Qing had overthrown the Ming in 1644 and proclaimed to be the new bearers of the Mandate of Heaven. The emperor was an exceptional being — a sage king — who could mediate the cosmic forces. Political power flowed from the top to the bottom through a series of hierarchically ordered positions that extended down to the county level, and bureaucrats were chosen through the imperial exam system that greatly impressed European political thinkers. In fact, later Enlightenment philosophers praised the Chinese government system as “a model of a moral and well-governed state…founded on rational texts and ruled by scholars,”

Kangxi helped set the foundation for this legacy. Early in his reign, he faced significant internal threats, most notably the Revolt of the Three Feudatories (1673–1681), a rebellion by three powerful Chinese generals who controlled large parts of southern China. After several years of fighting, Kangxi successfully crushed the rebellion, thus consolidating Qing authority across the empire. He also defeated the Ming general Zheng Chenggong, who was leading a resistance movement from the island of Taiwan. In 1683, Taiwan was incorporated into the Qing Empire, further stabilizing the southern regions.

While taking a hard stance against Ming rebels (who were native Han Chinese), Kangxi sought to create a balanced system between the Manchu ruling class and the Han Chinese majority. He continued the policy of using a dual-administration system, where each major government office had a Manchu and a Han official, ensuring a balance of power between the two ethnic groups. He also streamlined the imperial bureaucracy, reducing corruption and inefficiency within the civil service system. The civil service examinations, which had been disrupted by the fall of the Ming Dynasty, were reinstated, allowing the Qing administration to recruit talented officials from across the empire. In 1670, he issued the Sacred Edict, a series of moral and ethical instructions based on Confucian values, which were read out to the populace to promote social harmony and good behavior. Finally, in order to circumvent the scholar-officials who often challenged the emperor's authority, Kangxi implemented the Palace Memorial System. This system involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes to which only he and the official had access.

A Jesuit missionary described Kangxi's administrative system in 1683: “The emperor has divided the immeasurable districts beyond the [Great] Wall into forty-eight provinces and has made them all subject and tributary. Thus, he is sovereign of the Chinese and the nomads and could be justly called the greatest and mightiest ruler in the world...On this account, men of all ranks stand in his presence with deep awe and recognize him as sole ruler.”

Military campaigns under Kangxi

Portrait of the Kangxi Emperor in his armour

Expansion & the Banner System

Part of Kangxi's military success, especially in subduing Ming loyalisys, lay in the Eight Banner System that was established by his predecessors. This was both a military organization and an all-encompassing social system that divided the Manchu, Mongols, and later some Han Chinese into eight distinct military and administrative units (or "banners," each with its own colored flag. Each banner was a combination of military organization and civilian administrative control, providing both military power and a sense of unity among the Manchus and their allies. Banner soldiers were provided with land, stipends, and livelihoods by the state, and enjoyed special privileges, such as tax exemptions and the right to hold official positions within the imperial bureaucracy. The emperor also maintained final authority over the banners, further ensuring loyalty.

Kangxi transformed the Banners into a highly professionalized system while also relying on the Green Standard Army (made up of regular Han Chinese soldiers) to complement the banner armies. While the banners remained the elite troops, the Green Standard Army took on an increasingly important role in day-to-day policing and defense, especially in southern China.

With the military strengthened, Kangxi expanded Qing influence in Mongolia and Tibet and fought successful campaigns against the Dzungars (a Mongol khanate), securing the northern borders. He also defeated Russia and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, forcing Russia to give up territory in Northeast Asia and securing the northern border.

Scroll Three of the Southern Inspection Tour, Emperor Kangxi visiting the Sacred Mount Tai

The Kangxi Emperor returning to Beijing after a southern inspection tour in 1689.

Prosperity

The Kangxi Emperor oversaw a significant period of economic growth and population increase, and agricultural reforms and a reduction in taxes helped improve the livelihood of peasants. He reduced the land tax, a move that gained him great popularity among the people, particularly farmers. His government also repaired and expanded the Grand Canal to ensure the efficient movement of goods and grain.

Trade with Europe also expanded during this period. European traders, particularly the Dutch, Portuguese, and later the British, were eager to establish trade relationships with China, especially for goods like tea, silk, and porcelain. With this economic expansion, Kangxi was able to greatly increase the amount of silver in the national treasury to 50 million taels.

To promote this economic prosperity and reinforce loyalty in the southern portions of the empire, Kangxi launched the Southern Inspection Tours. He personally traveled to the southern provinces—including key economic centers—meeting local elites, inspecting defenses, and promoting Confucian values. To commemorate these six tours, he commissioned the artist Wang Hui to create 12 massive scrolls to document the pomp and pageantry of Kangxi's inspections.

Kangxi's portrait from his later reign

Chinese blue and white ‘phoenix-head’ ewers and covers from Kangxi's reign

Cultural Achievements

In addition to his Southern Inspection Tours, the Kangxi Emperor also visited Mount Wutai, a sacred Buddhist pilgrimage site in northeastern China that also served as an important site of cultural exchange between Han Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian cultures. While he adhered to Confucian principles, Kangxi also recognized the importance of Tibetan Buddhism in particular in winning over Tibetan and Mongol populations. He sponsored the construction and restoration of Buddhist temples, commissioned the printing and translation of Buddhist texts, and incorporated Buddhist rituals into state ceremonies.

Kangxi was also a great patron of the arts, literature, and scholarship. He commissioned the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary, a massive Chinese dictionary that became an important reference for scholars for centuries. This dictionary also helped win over Chinese scholar-bureaucrats who started by working on the dictionary and went on to take on greater responsibilities as state officials. His reign also saw the flourishing of porcelain production—with significant advances in blue and white designs—calligraphy, and painting. Like other Qing emperors, the Kangxi Emperor also commissioned artists to paint imperial portraits that portrayed his power and influence.

The Kangxi Emperor was also interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. He employed Jesuit missionaries at his court, who introduced Western astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and cartography. The Jesuits also assisted in the creation of the Kangxi Atlas, a detailed and accurate map of the Qing Empire, based on Western techniques of surveying. However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship. When Pope Clement XI condemned Chinese rites, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China.

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