Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman Empire)

Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566) was the tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, known for expanding the empire to its zenith in territorial, military, and cultural power. His reign is often considered the high point of the Ottoman Empire's "Golden Age" due to its remarkable achievements in governance, law, architecture, culture, and military conquest. He earned the admiration of many European rulers, who often regarded the Ottomans with a combination of awe and fear. Ottoman expansion into Europe gave the Ottoman Turks a powerful presence in the European balance of power, presenting a new opportunity for potential alliances that shifted political alignments. Most notably, Suleiman formalized an alliance with France against the Habsburgs and forged trade agreements with the English Levant Company.

A portrait of Suleiman attributed to the Italian Renaissance painter Titian

Suleiman Defines His Legacy

“I am God's slave and sultan of this world. By the grace of God I am head of Muhammad's community...In Baghdad I am the shah, in Byzantine realms the caesar, and in Egypt the sultan; who sends his fleets to the seas of Europe, the Maghrib and India. I am the sultan who took the crown and throne of Hungary and granted them to a humble slave...I conquered the land of Moldova [Eastern Europe/Balkans].”

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire, including under Suleiman (light blue)

Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza in 1538

Expanding Borders

Soon after succeeding his father, Suleiman began his military conquests, expanding the empire in all directions and often leading campaigns himself. In 1526, his defeat of the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács led to the partition of Hungary, with parts falling under Ottoman control, setting the stage for future conflict with the Habsburgs. He laid siege to Vienna in 1529, coming close to capturing the city but ultimately failing due to weather and logistical challenges. Although the siege was unsuccessful, it sent shockwaves through Christian Europe and demonstrated Ottoman military might. The end of these Habsburg-Ottoman Wars led to the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople (1533), in which Archduke of Austria Ferdinand I agreed to pay tribute to Suleiman for the lands in Hungary and recognized him as his "father and suzerain [superior ruler]."

Suleiman turned his attention to the East to face off against the Safavids and consolidate control over the Middle East. The Ottomans brought Iraq under Ottoman control and gained access to the Persian Gulf after conquering Baghdad in 1534. However, they could not decisively defeat the Safavids as their rivals.

Finally, Suleiman strengthened the Ottoman navy in order to solidify Ottoman presence in the Mediterranean and around the Indian Ocean. Under admiral Barbarossa, the Ottomans took the island of Rhodes from the Knights Hospitaller in 1522 and established dominance over North Africa, including capturing Tunis in 1534. In the Indian Ocean, the Ottomans contested Portuguese expansion. With strong control of the Red Sea, Suleiman successfully managed to dispute control of the trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire throughout the 16th century. He also assisted Aceh (Indonesia) to prevent a Portuguese monopoly on trade, although new trade routes did allow European powers to avoid the Ottoman monopoly on trade between the Mediterranean and Asia.

left: Ottoman miniature from the Süleymanname (an illustrated manuscript of Suleiman's life) depicting the execution by elephant of defeated enemy in Belgrade

Suleiman's Image & Administration

Aided by his grand vizier (chief minister) Ibrahim Pasha, Suleiman strengthened the central authority of the sultan over regional rulers, known beylerbeyi and pashas. He diminished the power of local feudal lords and enforced more direct control over the provinces to create a more unified empire, especially as it became increasingly multilingual, multiethnic, and multireligious.

Suleiman therefore turned to a synthesis of religious ideas from Central Asia, Islamic, and Christian ideas to present himself as a universal ruler or Last World Emperor. He and Pasha portrayed the sultan as a messianic figure who would gather Islam and Christianity under a single mantle. Thus, his competition with Charles V was not only over the control of Central Europe and the Mediterranean but also over Charles' title of Holy Roman Emperor. Similarly, his conflicts with the Safavids stemmed from the need to assert supremacy in the Muslim world. Suleiman and his close supporters argued that Suleiman was the one and true emperor on earth.

European statesmen took notice of the Ottoman state in the 16th century. Italian statesman Machiavelli—who wrote The Prince as a guide for rulers to maintain their power—admired the centralization of the Ottoman state, writing "All the Turkish monarchy is governed by one ruler, the others are his servants, and dividing his kingdom into 'sangiascates' [administrative units], he sends to them various administrators, and charges or recalls them at his pleasure...The reasons it would be difficult for outsiders to invade the Turkish kingdom are that the invader would not be invited by discontented princes [nobles] of that kingdom, nor hope to facilitate [nobles] into rebellion.”

Similarly, the Austrian ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, admired Suleiman's bureaucracy: “In making his appointments the Sultan [Suleiman] pays no regard to any…wealth or rank...he considers each case on its own merits...It is by merit that men rise in the service, a system which ensures that posts should only be assigned to the competent...Those who receive the highest offices from the Sultan are for the most part the sons of shepherds or herdsmen…. Among the Turks…honors, high posts, and judgeships are the rewards of great ability and good service. If a man is dishonest, or lazy, or careless, he remains at the bottom of the ladder…for such qualities there are no honors in Turkey!”

However, as he got older, Suleiman relied increasingly on his advisers and wives, leading to tensions. Ibrahim Pasha accumulated wealth and influence that earned him enemies, including Suleiman's favorite wife, Hurrem Sultan (aka Roxelana). Disputes between the two ultimately ended in Suleiman's decision to execute Pasha. Suleiman also ordered the execution of a son on the suspicion of rebellion; and a few years later, another son rebelled, was defeated, escaped to Iran, and was executed there on his instructions.

The Lawgiver

While Suleiman was "the Magnificent" to many, his subjects first and foremost considered him "the Lawgiver" due to his legal reforms. While Islamic Sharia law remained the foundation of the empire's legal system, Suleiman codified and streamlined Kanun (secular laws), particularly in areas like taxation, criminal justice, and land tenure. His laws were aimed at ensuring justice, curbing the excesses of provincial governors, and improving the empire’s governance; and he did so by employing legal scholars to eliminate contradictions from the legal code and reform legislation to adapt to the changing empire. His legal code lasted over 300 years and included a new criminal and police legislation, prescribing a set of fines for specific offenses, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation. Taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. Specific laws were also adopted to protect Jewish communities on the suggestion of his favorite doctor, a Spanish Jew Moses Hamon.

Topkapi Palace

The Süleymaniye Mosque

The Arts

Suleiman’s reign was a golden age of architecture and arts in the Ottoman Empire. He wanted to transform Constantinople into the center of Islamic civilization by a series of projects, including bridges, mosques, palaces and various charitable and social establishments. Suleiman appointed the renowned architect Mimar Sinan to construct many of these masterpieces during this period, including the Süleymaniye Mosque, which stands as a symbol of Ottoman imperial grandeur. Suleiman also restored the Dome of the Rock and the Walls of Jerusalem and expanded Topkapi Palace to reflect the expansion and wealth of the empire.

Suleiman served as a patron of the arts, contributing to advances in calligraphy, manuscript illumination, ceramics, and textiles. The empire became a center for learning and culture, with poets, scholars, and artists from across the empire benefiting from imperial sponsorship and introducing a synthesis of Arabic, Turkish and European cultures. Suleiman established imperial artistic societies at Topkapi Palace, where artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid accordingly.

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