oVERVIEW OF dYSLEXIA & dYSGRAPHIA

What is Dyslexia?

TEC §38.003 defines dyslexia and related disorders in the following way:

“Dyslexia” means a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by a difficulty in learning to read, write, or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity.

“Related disorders” include disorders similar to or related to dyslexia, such as developmental auditory imperception, dysphasia, specific developmental dyslexia, developmental dysgraphia, and developmental spelling disability.

TEC §38.003(d)(1)-(2) (1995)

http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/ED/htm/ED.38.htm#38.003

The Dyslexia Handbook, 2024 Update

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) defines dyslexia as following:

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

Adopted by the International Dyslexia Association Board of Directors,

November 12, 2002

The Dyslexia Handbook, 2024 Update

Primary characteristics of Dyslexia:

Difficulty reading words in isolation
Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or labored without prosody)
Difficulty spelling

Individuals demonstrate differences in degree of impairment and may not exhibit all the characteristics listed above.

characteristics are most often associated with:

Segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness)
Learning the names of letters and their associated sounds
Holding information about sounds and words in memory (phonological memory)
Rapidly recalling the names of familiar objects, colors, or letters of the alphabet (rapid naming)

Consequences of dyslexia may include:

Variable difficulty with aspects of reading comprehension
Variable difficulty with aspects of written language
Limited vocabulary growth due to reduced reading experiences

What is Dysgraphia?

A review of recent evidence indicates that dysgraphia is best defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder manifested by illegible and/or inefficient handwriting due to difficulty with letter formation. This difficulty is the result of deficits in graphomotor function (hand movements used for writing) and/or storing and retrieving orthographic codes (letter forms) (Berninger, 2015). Secondary consequences may include problems with spelling and written expression. The difficulty is not solely due to lack of instruction and is not associated with other developmental or neurological conditions that involve motor impairment.

The Dyslexia Handbook, 2024 Update

Characteristics of dysgraphia:

Variably shaped and poorly formed letters
Excessive erasures and cross-outs
Poor spacing between letters and words
Letter and number reversals beyond early stages of writing
Awkward, inconsistent pencil grip
Heavy pressure and hand fatigue
Slow writing and copying with legible or illegible handwriting (Andrews & Lombardino, 2014)

Additional consequences of dysgraphia:

Difficulty with unedited written spelling
Low volume of written output as well as problems with other aspects of written expression

Dysgraphia is not:

Evidence of a damaged motor nervous system
Part of a developmental disability that has fine motor deficits (e.g., intellectual disability, autism, cerebral palsy)
Secondary to a medical condition (e.g., meningitis, significant head trauma, brain trauma)
Association with generalized developmental motor or coordination difficulties (Developmental Coordination Disorder)
Impaired spelling or written expression with typical handwriting (legibility and rate) (Berninger, 2004)

dysgraphia can be due to:

Impaired feedback the brain is receiving from the fingers
Weaknesses using visual processing to coordinate hand movement and organzie the use of space
Problems wih motor planning and sequencing
Difficulty with storage and retrieval of letter forms (Levine, 1999)

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