Floor Plan – is a plan, cross-sectional view of the house, displaying the size and locations of the rooms, door and window openings, stairwell, exterior and interior walls, fixtures, and furniture. 

Floor planning refers to the strategic layout and arrangement of spaces within a building or room to optimize functionality, aesthetics, and efficiency.

Steps: 

1. Draw a schematic diagram showing the various areas of the house.

2.  Add the box that represents the columns of the house. In this plan, the size of this square boxes is 3mm x 3mm using scale 1:100m.

3. Indicate the openings for doors, windows, and arch. In this plan, the entrance and exit doors measure 0.90m (9mm in the drawing), bedroom door is 0.8m, T&B door is 0.60m. The window measures 0.70m.

4. Draw the walls. In this plan, the thickness of the wall is 2mm. 

5. Draw the furniture and fixtures according to their standard sizes (available in the market or measure the real stuff at home). Open our previous SLMs for reference. Draw the lines using FINE DARK LINES. 

6. Finalize the plan. Add the dimensioning system, labels (doors, windows, stair, and rooms), cutting-plane line, scale, and title. Labels and other texts should be 3mm while the height of the title is 5mm. bear in mind to use guidelines drawn using light lines for all letterings. 

Considerations in Drafting the Floor Plan.

1. 1. 1. The suggested actual thickness of the wall ranges from 0.10 meters to 0.15 meters (1mm to 1.5mm in a drawing, scale 1:100). Both shaded and unshaded walls are acceptable.

      2.  For windows, the suggested actual span is 0.50 meters or 0.70 meters (5mm to 7mm in a drawing, scale 1:100).

      3. When drawing the door, consider the following measurements: entrance and exit doors should measure 0.90 meters to 1.00 meters (9mm to 10mm in a drawing, scale 1:100); bedroom doors should be 0.80 meters (8mm in a drawing, scale 1:100), and T&B doors should be 0.65 meters to 0.70 meters (6.5mm to 7mm in a drawing, scale 1:100).

      4. Window and door labels should have a height of 3mm with light guidelines, using all capital letters.

      5. Room/area labels should be 3mm high with light guidelines, using all capital letters.

      6. Dimension numerals should have a height of 3mm with light guidelines, using all capital letters.

      7. Dimension lines must be drawn with arrowheads. Circles and architectural ticks are preferred for use as arrowheads. Dimension lines should be thin lines.

      8. Extension lines should be drawn as thin as your dimension lines, with a 3mm offset and extended part.

      9. The cutting-plane lines must be thick and drawn across and along the plan.

      10. The title should be 5mm high, while the scale should be 3mm high, with light guidelines using all capital letters.

      11. Furniture and fixtures must be drawn using thin lines.

      12. The roof line must be drawn using a hidden line. A hidden line is a medium line, with 3mm dashes and 1mm spaces between dashes.

      13. For a two-story house, the stairs should be 0.90 meters to 1.00 meters wide (9mm to 10mm in the drawing, scale 1:100), with each step measuring 0.30 meters (3mm in the drawing, scale 1:100). The landing should measure 1.00m x 1.00m (10mm x 10mm in the drawing, scale 1:100), 1.00m x 2.00m (10mm x 20mm in the drawing, scale 1:100), 0.90m x 0.90m (9mm x 10mm in the drawing, scale 1:100), or 0.90m x 1.80m (9mm x 18mm in the drawing, scale 1:100).

Principles of Floor Planning

Several key principles are considered in floor planning:

1. Space Allocation: Allocate space based on the intended function and usage of each area. Prioritize essential functions and allocate space accordingly while ensuring a logical flow between spaces.

2. Functionality: Ensure that each room or area serves its intended purpose efficiently. Consider the needs of occupants and how they will use the space to determine layout and design.

3. Traffic Flow: Plan for smooth traffic flow within the space. Create clear pathways and minimize obstacles to facilitate movement between rooms and areas.

4. Zoning: Divide the space into zones based on function. For example, separate public and private areas, work, and leisure spaces, and sleeping and living areas to create a cohesive layout.

5. Flexibility: Design spaces to be adaptable. Consider future needs and changes in room functions and incorporate features that allow for flexibility and easy rearrangement.

6. Natural Light and Ventilation: Maximize the use of natural light and ventilation. Place windows strategically to bring in daylight and fresh air, reducing the need for artificial lighting and HVAC systems.

7. Proportion and Scale: Maintain proportion and scale in the layout and furnishings. Ensure that furniture and decor fit the size of the room without overwhelming or underutilizing the space.

8. Accessibility: Ensure that the floor plan is accessible to all, including individuals with disabilities. Incorporate ramps, wide doorways, and other accessibility features as needed.

9. Privacy: Consider the need for privacy in various areas. Place private spaces like bedrooms and bathrooms away from more public areas like living rooms and kitchens.

10. Aesthetics: Pay attention to aesthetics and design principles. Use color, texture, materials, and furnishings to create a cohesive and visually pleasing interior.

11. Storage: Plan for sufficient storage space. Incorporate closets, cabinets, and other storage solutions to keep the space organized and clutter-free.

12. Safety: Prioritize safety in the floor plan. Ensure that emergency exits are easily accessible, and consider fire safety regulations and requirements.

13. Sustainability: Incorporate sustainable design principles by selecting eco-friendly materials, energy-efficient lighting, and appliances, and considering passive design strategies to reduce energy consumption.

14. Budget Considerations: Stay within budget constraints when planning the layout. Make informed decisions about materials and furnishings to avoid overspending.

15. Client Needs and Preferences: If designing for a specific client, consider their needs, preferences, and lifestyle to create a customized floor plan that suits their unique requirements.

What is a Site Development Plan?

It is the outline and measurements of the proposed building and its placement on the property showing the building's position and location, including property line, setbacks, approaches, grade contours, landscape, and other pertinent data concerning the site. A site development plan is drawn using a scale not smaller than 1:200meters.

National Building Code Rules:

1. For one-storey wooden or frame house, the height of the floor plan from the ground should not be less than 1.50 m.

2. Walls with window opening should not be less than 2.00 m. from the lot line of fence. In other words, adjacent houses should not be at least 4.00 m. from each other.

3. The front part of a house should be at least 3.00 m (R2) and 4.50m (R1) from the lot line along the street.

4. No windows should be constructed along a wall of a house if this wall is flush with or exactly on the lot line.

5. R-1 - Low-density residential zones, characterized mainly by single-family, single-detached dwellings

Definition of Terms

• Property Line – Defines the legal boundaries of the lot where the construction will take place.

• The building line is the outline of the building which is exactly the wall line around the house. 

• Setbacks – Minimum distances required between the property line and the building line, as mandated by local zoning ordinances or the NBCP for ventilation, light, and emergency access.

• Easement – A designated area within the property that cannot be built upon, often reserved for utility lines, drainage, or public access.

• Floor Area Ratio (FAR) – The ratio of a building's total floor area to the size of its lot, used to control building density.

• Right-of-Way (ROW) – A strip of land granted for transportation or utility purposes, allowing public access to and through the property.

• Topography – The layout or contour of the land, including natural and man-made features such as slopes, hills, and bodies of water, often illustrated with contour lines.

• Building Footprint – The area that the building physically occupies on the site, indicating the outer perimeter.

• Open Space – Unbuilt portions of the property designated for landscaping, gardens, recreational use, or natural preservation.

• Site Grading – The leveling or reshaping of the land to create a suitable foundation for structures, drainage, and access, illustrated with grading plans.

• Circulation – Layout for vehicular and pedestrian movement on the site, including driveways, pathways, parking areas, and access roads.

• Drainage Plan – Outlines how water will be managed on-site to prevent flooding, including the placement of drainage lines, retention basins, and slopes.

• Zoning Classification – Designates the permitted land use for the property (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial) based on local zoning laws.

• Landscaping Plan – A detailed layout of plants, trees, and green spaces intended to enhance the site’s aesthetic and environmental quality.

• Building Orientation – The positioning of the building in relation to the sun, wind, and views to maximize energy efficiency and comfort.

• Utilities Layout – Shows the planned placement of essential services such as water supply, electricity, sewage, and gas lines within the site.

• Site is an area of land available for construction or the lot on which a building is constructed. Building site maybe a single lot, a series of lots, or a subdivision. A lot is a piece of ground of specific size. A subdivision is a large tract of land that is being developed.

• Site: Refers to the area of land designated for construction. It may consist of a single lot (a specific-sized piece of ground), multiple lots, or even a subdivision—a large tract of land divided into smaller parcels for development purposes.

• Subdivision: A large area of land divided into smaller lots, typically developed for residential or commercial purposes.

• Setback: The required minimum distance between the building and the property lines, regulating how close structures can be built to the lot boundaries. Setbacks ensure access, light, and ventilation while complying with local zoning and building regulations.

• Zoning: Legal restrictions and guidelines on the type, size, and location of structures within a designated area. Zoning laws aim to organize land use and prevent conflicting activities in nearby areas, with certain zones designated specifically for residential, commercial, industrial, or mixed-use purposes.

• National Building Code of the Philippines (NBCP): Also known as Presidential Decree No. 1096, this is the main regulatory framework governing building design, construction, and maintenance in the Philippines. It ensures structures meet safety, health, and welfare standards, encompassing rules on structural integrity, fire safety, sanitation, and more.

• A lot description is a detailed, formal record of a parcel of land that includes its boundaries defined by specific points, bearings (directions), and distances. These details are typically presented in tabular form to outline the precise perimeter of the lot for legal and development purposes. 

• Lot Plotting is the process of marking and defining the boundaries and features of a property lot on a site development plan or land map. 

Planning Consideration in Developing the Site

Location of a proposed house on the lot. The location of the house must be considered in order to determine the locations of the rooms and the house itself on the lot. Some lots are located on swampy grounds and others on hilly or rugged terrain. Still others are sited near rivers, highways, streets and squatter areas. The front part of the house generally faces the street or away from ugly views like the back parts of neighboring houses, a swampy area, and thick bushes.

Many want their bedrooms to face the sunrise – which is, on the eastern side of the lot. Others, especially those who work at night, prefer their bedrooms located on the west side. The breeze at the site may determine the location of the living room and toilet or bathrooms. The height of the flood waters in the locality should also be considered in determining the distance of the first floor from the ground. This is especially true in low areas. In high locations the floor may be 20 cm. only from the ground level.

As earlier mentioned the house may be located at the center of the lot. Or one of its sides may be exactly on a lot line or fence. In this case, a firewall which is made of concrete, adobe, and concrete hollow blocks should be constructed on this side of the house.

Like and dislikes of the family member. This factor is usually considered when the family is rich and can afford to pay for the services of an architect or draftsman. Before he designs the house, the architect or draftsman has to first interview the members of the family to get information about their interests, hobbies, and the like. From such interviews, he will get to know whether the family wants a library or study room, a social hall, a playroom, a music room, a swimming pool, a carport or garage, servant’s quarters, a driver’s room, a landscaped garden, a balcony, and a roof garden.

Guides in Lot Plotting

www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lYDnOdU7QQ 

To read bearings using a protractor, follow these steps:

Materials Needed:

• A protractor

• A straight edge (ruler)

• A pencil or pen

Steps:

1. Understand Bearings: Bearings are measured in degrees from the North (0°) or South (180°) toward the East (90°) or West (270°), with the following format: 

• N 80° 30' E (This means 80 degrees 30 minutes to the east of North) 

• S 10° 15' E (This means 10 degrees 15 minutes to the east of South)

2. Identify the Starting Point: Mark the starting point on your map or drawing where the first bearing begins.

3. Place the Protractor: Align the center point (small hole or dot) of the protractor on the starting point. Align the 0° (or 180° depending on the direction of measurement) of the protractor with the North-South axis (vertical grid line on your drawing or a line you’ve drawn). Ensure the protractor is facing the correct way (0° toward the North if you're working with N bearings).

4. Read the Bearing: 

• For a bearing like N 80° 30' E, read from the North (0° on the protractor), moving clockwise (toward the right) until you reach 80°. The "30 minutes" is a fraction of a degree (halfway between 80° and 81°). If your protractor doesn't show minutes, just estimate halfway between degree marks.

• For a bearing like S 10° 15' E, place the protractor so 180° (South) aligns with the vertical grid line, and measure 10° from South, moving clockwise (toward the East). Estimate 15 minutes (a quarter of the way between 10° and 11° if your protractor doesn't show minutes).

5. Draw the Line: Use a straight edge (ruler) to draw a line in the direction of the bearing. Start from your point and extend the line in the direction you measured.

6. Repeat for the Remaining Bearings: Move to the next point (e.g., Point 2) and repeat the steps. Align the protractor with the next direction (North or South), read the bearing, and draw the line.

Example:

Bearing: N 80° 30' E

• Place the protractor at your starting point.

• Align 0° with the North (upward).

• Move clockwise to 80° and estimate 30 minutes (halfway to 81°).

• Draw a line in that direction.

• Bearing: S 10° 15' E

• Place the protractor at the next point.

• Align 180° with South.

• Move clockwise 10° (plus 15 minutes between 10° and 11°).

• Draw a line in that direction.

By following these steps, you can accurately plot and draw bearings on your map or plan using a protractor.

Procedures for Drafting the Site Development Plan

Here’s a step-by-step guide on drafting a Site Development Plan (SDP) manually using traditional tools like a T-square, triangles, compass, protractor, and scale ruler, beginning with lot plotting:

1. Prepare Your Tools and Materials

• Tools: T-square, triangles, template, protractor, mechanical pencils, graphite pencils, eraser, and triangular scale ruler.

• Materials: Site survey data (lot description), and drafting paper.

2. Set Up the Drafting Paper

• Secure the drafting paper on your drawing board with masking tape to prevent it from shifting.

• Use the T-square to align the paper and ensure that your lines are straight and square with the edges of the paper.

3. Start with Lot Plotting

• Outline the Lot Boundaries: Using the scale ruler, mark the boundary lines of the lot as per the dimensions provided in the site survey.

• Draw Boundary Lines: Use the T-square and triangles to create precise, straight boundary lines. Label each line with its respective dimension.

• Mark Corner Points: Plot and label each corner point according to the survey data (e.g., Point A, Point B).

• Include North Orientation: Indicate the north direction using a small arrow or compass rose, typically positioned near the top right of the plan.

4. Establish Setbacks and Building Lines

• Measure Setbacks: Refer to zoning requirements for minimum setback distances from the front, sides, and rear of the lot. Use the scale ruler to mark these distances from each boundary.

• Draw Building Line: Draw dashed lines along the setback measurements to indicate where the building can legally be placed. These lines define the "buildable area" within the lot.

5. Plot Existing Features (if applicable)

• Identify Key Features: Plot any existing structures, trees, slopes, or other features that are relevant to the development. Use survey data for accuracy.

• Mark Elevations (if applicable): If there are different elevations on the site, mark them using contour lines or spot elevations to represent the terrain.

6. Plan Building Footprint and Structures

• Determine Building Placement: Based on the buildable area defined by the setback lines, plan the footprint of the building(s) while ensuring space for access, ventilation, and light.

• Draw Building Outline: Use the scale, T-square, and triangles to create the building footprint, taking care to keep all lines straight and at right angles where needed.

• Indicate Access Points: Mark entry points, pathways, driveways, and other access features. Ensure proper alignment with the building and lot boundaries.

7. Add Auxiliary Elements (Driveways, Pathways, Landscaping)

• Plot Driveways and Walkways: Use the scale ruler to draw pathways and driveways, ensuring appropriate access to the main road.

• Landscape Features: Outline areas for landscaping, trees, or green spaces. Lightly shade or hatch these areas to differentiate them from structures.

8. Draw Utility Lines and Easements (if applicable)

• Utility Lines: Indicate any utility lines (water, electricity, sewer) based on the information provided by the site survey.

• Easements: Draw easements as dotted or dashed lines if required for utilities or access rights.

9. Label All Elements

• Lot and Building Dimensions: Clearly label each dimension, including boundary lengths, setbacks, building length/width, and other relevant measurements.

• Titles and Legends: Add a title block at the bottom or corner of the plan, including information such as the project name, scale, date, and draftsman’s initials. Include a legend to explain symbols for features like landscaping, utilities, and setbacks.

10. Review and Finalize

• Double-Check Measurements: Verify all dimensions and placements for accuracy.

• Clean Up Lines: Erase any construction lines or guidelines, leaving only the essential lines on the final drawing.

• Add Finishing Touches: Darken boundary lines, building outlines, and other main features to enhance clarity.

11. Add Scale and Notes

• Include Scale Information: Indicate the scale (e.g., 1:100) near the title block to show the proportional representation of the drawing.

• Add Notes for Clarity: Write notes or annotations where necessary to clarify specific elements like setback requirements or building height restrictions.

Stair – a series of steps wherein to ascend or descend from one-storey to another.

Stair Detail – is a working drawing that shows the design and specifications of the stairs to be constructed.

Definition of Terms

• • • Tread – the horizontal part of a step including the nosing

    • Baluster – the small post supporting the handrail

    • Flight – the series of steps from one landing to another.

    • Handrail – a rail parallel with the inclination of the stair that holds the balusters.

    •  Pitch – the angle of inclination of the horizontal of the stair.

    •  Rise – the height of a flight of stairs or the height of successive treads.

    • Riser – the vertical face of a stair step.

    • Run – the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of the stair flight.

    • Stairwell – the vertical shaft containing the staircase.

    • Winders are steps that are not parallel to each other.

Stairways Requirements according to the National Building Code of the Philippines:

• • General Rule: All stairways (except those used to access equipment) must conform to specific regulations.

  • Width: Stairways for occupant load > 50: Minimum width of 1.10 meters.
    Stairways for occupant load ≤ 50: Minimum width of 900 millimeters.
    Stairways for occupant load < 10: Minimum width of 750 millimeters.
    Exceptions: Trim and handrails cannot reduce the required width by more than 100 millimeters.

  • Rise and Run: Maximum rise per step: 200 millimeters.
    Minimum run per step: 250 millimeters.
    Maximum variation in height or width of risers and treads in a flight: 5 millimeters.

  • Private stairways (occupant load < 10): Maximum rise: 200 millimeters.
    Minimum run: 250 millimeters.

  • Winding Stairways: Allowed in Group A occupancy and private Group B stairways.
    Condition: The required run width must be measured 300 millimeters from the side where treads are narrower.
    Minimum width of run at any point: 150 millimeters.

  • Circular Stairways: This may be used as an exit if the minimum run width is 250 millimeters.

  • All treads in one flight must have identical dimensions within a 5-millimeter tolerance.

  • Landings: The landing dimension (measured in the direction of travel) must be equal to the width of the stairway.
    For straight-run stairs, the landing dimension must not exceed 1.20 meters. Landings cannot be reduced in width by more than 100 millimeters due to a door when fully open.

  • Directional exit signs are required as per the Code.

  • Distance Between Landings: Vertical distance between landings must not exceed 3.60 meters.

  • Handrails: Handrails must be provided on both sides of stairways.

  • For stairways wider than 3.00 meters, intermediate handrails are required for every 3.00 meters of width.
    Handrails must be spaced equally across the width of the stairway.

  • Height of handrails: Between 800 millimeters and 900 millimeters above the nosing of treads.

  • Endings: Handrails must terminate in newel posts or safety terminals.

  • Exceptions: Stairways 1.10 meters or less in width or those serving a single dwelling may have only one handrail.
    Open stairways must have handrails on the open side.
    Stairways with fewer than four risers are not required to have handrails.

Types of Stairs 

1. Straight Stairs

   • Stairs that go in one direction without turning. They are the simplest and most common type.

2. L-Shaped Stairs

   • Stairs that have a 90-degree turn, create an "L" shape. The turn usually happens at a landing.

3. U-Shaped Stairs

   • Stairs that have a 180-degree turn, forming a "U" shape. These are made with two straight flights connected by a landing.

4. Spiral Stairs

   • Stairs that curve around a central pole, form a circle. They are space-saving and often used in tight areas.

5. Circular Stairs

   • Stairs that curve smoothly in a circular pattern, but they don’t have a central pole like spiral stairs.

6. Winder Stairs

   • Stairs that make a turn without a landing. The steps are triangular where the stairs change direction.

7. Floating Stairs

   • Stairs with no visible support underneath, giving the appearance that they are "floating."

8. Curved Stairs

   • Stairs that follow a gentle curve, without forming a full circle. They are elegant and often used in grand designs.

9. Ladder Stairs

   • Stairs that are steep and look like a ladder. They are used in very small spaces like attics.

10. Bifurcated Stairs

o   A staircase that splits into two separate flights, usually in opposite directions, often seen in large buildings.

11. Quarter-Turn Stairs

    • Stairs that turn 90 degrees, but the turn happens over a small number of steps rather than a landing.

12. Half-Turn Stairs

    • Similar to U-shaped stairs, but instead of a landing, the turn happens gradually over several steps.

13. Cantilever Stairs

    • Stairs that are attached to the wall on one side, with the other side appearing unsupported, creating a modern, floating effect.

14. Dog-Legged Stairs

    • A type of U-shaped stairs where two flights are parallel and connected by a landing, with no space between them.

15. Scissor Stairs

    • Two sets of stairs in the same vertical space, designed to allow movement in opposite directions. Common in fire exits.

16. Helical Stairs

    • Similar to spiral stairs but without a central pole, creating a smooth and continuous curve.

17. Split Stairs

    • A single flight that splits into two flights in opposite directions at a landing, is often used in grand entrances.

18. Mono-Stringer Stairs

    • Stairs are supported by a single beam (stringer) underneath the center, giving a sleek, modern appearance.

19. Zigzag Stairs

    • Stairs with alternating steps that create a zigzag shape. They are compact and often used in tight spaces.

20. Folded Plate Stairs

    • Stairs with sharp angles that make them look like they are folded from a single piece of material.

21. Folding Stairs

    • Compact, collapsible stairs are used to temporarily access spaces like attics or lofts.

22. Compact Stairs

    • Narrow and space-saving stairs are often designed for small homes or tight spaces.

23. Circular Spiral Stairs

    • A combination of spiral and circular stairs, typically used for decorative purposes in small spaces.

24. Fire Escape Stairs

    • External stairs are designed for emergency use, usually made of metal and often in a straight or zigzag pattern.

25. Double-Helix Stairs

    • Two intertwining flights of stairs, resembling the shape of a DNA strand. They are rare and used for dramatic designs.

Learn more here: 

8 Types of Stairs

25 Types of Stairs

Vicinity Map – is a map showing the location of the project site in the neighborhood. The approximate extent of the map covers the area within the one (1) kilometer radius wherein the project site is the center of the circle showing the location.

Features of Vicinity Map

•        Lot

•        Blocks and networks of roads

•        North arrow

•        Labels of streets

•        Landmarks

•        Project site indicator

•        Directions towards a certain location

Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) equipment perform heating and/or cooling for residential, commercial, or industrial buildings. The HVAC system may also be responsible for providing fresh outdoor air to dilute interior airborne contaminants such as odors from occupants, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from interior furnishings, chemicals used for cleaning, etc.

Air conditioning

Air conditioning may be defined as the simultaneous control of air temperature, humidity, motion, and purity of air in a confined space.

Air Conditioning Systems

Air conditioning which, is the process of controlling the physical properties of air, may be divided into 2 general classes:

1.    Air Conditioning for human comfort

2.    Process air conditioning 

Comfort air conditioning is a modern method of controlling the temperature and humidity of air in an enclosed space so that it will give comfort to the majority of the occupants of the space.

Process air conditioning is concerned with producing an air condition within an enclosed space that is most favorable to the manufacturing operation being conducted in that space.

In general, comfort air-conditioning may be defined as the simultaneous and automatic control of temperature humidity, and air motion so that the greatest feeling of comfort is produced for the largest number of people. Air conditioning consists of cooling the air, dehumidifying it, and placing the air in motion. Cooling the air requires refrigeration while dehumidifying the air requires either refrigeration or chemical treatment.

How does an AC work?

An air conditioner cools and dehumidifies the air as it passes over a cold coil surface. The indoor coil is an air-to-liquid heat exchanger with rows of tubes that pass the liquid through the coil. Finned surfaces connected to these tubes increase the overall surface area of the cold surface thereby increasing the heat transfer characteristics between the air passing over the coil and liquid passing through the coil. The type of liquid used depends on the system selected. Direct-expansion (DX) equipment uses refrigerant as the liquid medium. Chilled water (CW) can also be used as a liquid medium. When the required temperature of a chilled water system is near the freezing point, freeze protection is added in the form of glycols or salts. Regardless of the liquid medium used, the liquid is delivered to the cooling coil at a cold temperature.

The functions of air conditioning systems are:

1.    Cooling and dehumidifying air

2.    Heating and humidifying air

3.    Cleaning of air (Filtration)

Circulation of Air Conditioning Standards

1.   Heating and Humidifying. A relative humidity of 30 to 35 percent is found most satisfactory in winter. With this proportion a temperature from 70˚to 75˚F (21.1˚-23.9˚) is comfortable.

2.   Cooling and Dehumidifying. For summer cooling, temperatures of 76˚ to 80˚F (24.4˚C-26.6˚C) and 50 percent relative humidity are frequent design averages.

3.    Air Motion. A gentle motion of air produces a refreshing and stimulating effect. The velocity should average 15 to 25 ft. per minute measured 36 inches above the floor.

4.   Air Supply. Many codes require about 30 cu. ft. per minute. per person. Since the indoor air is recirculated and reused in air conditioning, a smaller amount of air is required, 5 to 10 cu. ft. per person is sufficient.

Types of AC systems

Cooling Only Split-System

A split system is a combination of an indoor air handling unit and an outdoor condensing unit. The indoor air handling unit contains a supply air fan and an air-to-refrigerant heat exchanger (or cooling coil), and the expansion device. The outdoor condensing unit consists of a compressor and a condenser coil. Split systems are typically found in residential or small commercial buildings.

These systems have the highest energy efficiency rating (EER) of all the available AC systems. Manufacturers are required to take the EER rating and provide a seasonal energy efficiency rating (SEER) for use by consumers. SEER ratings vary widely and range from 10 to 20. The higher the SEER rating, the more efficient the AC system operates. If heating is required, an alternate method of heating the interior of the building must be used, usually in the form of electric or gas heating.

Cooling Only Packaged-System

A packaged system is a single unit combining all the components described in the split system. Since the unit is a package, it must be placed outside the building, and indoor air is “ducted” from the building to the packaged system and back through an air distribution system. These units typically have SEER ratings from 10 to 18. If heating is required, an alternate method of heating the interior of the building must be used, usually in the form of electric or gas heating.

Heat Pump

Heat pumps are similar to cooling-only systems with one exception. A special valve in the refrigeration piping allows the refrigeration cycle to be operated in reverse. It cools the indoor air and ejects heat to the outdoors. A heat pump can also cool the indoor air, but when the valve is reversed, the indoor air is heated.

Chilled Water System

In a chilled water system, liquid water is pumped throughout the building to “chilled water coils”. Since the liquid water needs to be at a cold temperature, a “cooling plant” is required. The plant is typically referred to as a chiller plant. Vapor compression equipment in the plant cools the water to a cold temperature and pumps the cold water to air-to-water heat exchangers where needed.

Window Air Conditioners

A window air conditioner is typically installed in a window or custom opening in a wall. The Window AC can only cool small areas and is not intended to provide cooling to multiple rooms or zones. These air conditioners are manufactured as cool only or can provide both cooling and heating.

Packaged Terminal Heat Pump

Packaged terminal heat pumps (PTHP) are like a window-mounted air conditioner. These units are typically installed in a sleeve passing through the outdoor wall of an apartment, hotel, school classroom, etc. PTHPs are completely self-contained and require only an electrical connection in addition to the opening in the building shell. They use the outdoor air as the heat source in winter and as a heat sink in summer. They can also provide ventilation air. Flexibility and lower installed cost are the primary advantages of the PTHP. Disadvantages include in-room maintenance, higher operating costs, relatively short life, imprecise "on-off" temperature control, and they can be rather noisy.

Controlling humidity with an AC system

Humidity is becoming more of a concern to building operators and owners. High indoor humidity leads to mold and mildew growth inside the building. The are several methods of controlling indoor humidity. The simplest (and most expensive) method is to connect a humidistat to an electric heater. When the humidity inside the building rises above the humidistat set point, the heater is turned on. The additional heat causes the air conditioning system to run longer and remove more moisture.

Air Conditioning Equipment and Controls

An air conditioning system has the following equipment and controls

 1.   Compressors.

Compressors used are of two types:

a.    Reciprocating is commonly referred to as piston type

b.   Centrifugal refers to two rotary-type compressors

For up to 100 tons, reciprocating units are used because centrifugal compressors are not manufactured in these sizes.

2.   Condensers.

Condensers used for liquifying have three general designs.

a.    Air-cooled condensers. Air-cooled condensers are seldom used for capacities above 3 tons of refrigeration unless an adequate water supply is extremely difficult to obtain. The principal disadvantages of this kind are the high power cost and the reduction of capacity on hot days. The conventional air-cooled condenser consists of the condenser coil, compressor, condenser fan with motor, crankcase, heater, controls, service valves, and filter drier.

b.   Water-Cooled condensers.

Water-cooled condensers are of three types:

1.   Double pipe condenser

2.   Shell and tube condensers

3.   Shell and coil condensers

Water-cooled condensing units are provided with cooling towers usually located on the roof of the building

c.    Evaporative Condensers. This type of condenser makes use of both air and water for cooling and is available in sizes up to 100 tons or more. It is applicable in areas where there is a high cost of water for condenser purposes. However, it uses only 3 to 5 percent of the amount if the condenser is entirely water-cooled.

3. Evaporation and Coolers. A conventional evaporator of an air-conditioning system includes an evaporator coil, blowers, motors, control and filter. There are several methods used for cooling in air conditioning:

a.    Direct cooling of air

b.    Direct cooling of water

c.    Indirect cooling

4. Air cleaning equipment. Air may contain large quantities of dust, cinders, soot, smoke, fumes, pollen, grit, bacteria, and odor. These contaminating elements in the air are removed by filtration and by air washing.

Air-conditioning filters are of different types:

a.    Dry-filter consists of wireframes or panels, enclosing felt, cotton, batting, and cellulose pockets through which the air is screened.

b.    Viscous filters consist of a series of metal deflecting plates or screens coated with viscous oil coming in contact with these surfaces. The airflow is abruptly changed in direction and the dust is trapped in the oil film and remains there.

c.    Automatic viscous filters. It is a system consisting of two endless vertical filter curtains with the front curtain denser and passes downward through an oil reservoir with the rear curtain catching entrained oil in the air.

d.    Electric precipitators. Consists of a positive electric field and negative grounded tubes which serve to remove from the air the fine dust, mists, unburned particles in smoke, and other matters which would pass through the dry and viscous filters. 

5. Fans. Fans used in air conditioning are of two tubes.

a.    Centrifugal Fans (Radial Type of Fan). The air enters at one side near the axis of the wheel and is discharged radially through the outlet placed at a tangent to the wheel.

b.    Propeller Fans (Axial Type of Fan). The air enters at the rear of the fan and emerges at the front in a line parallel to the axis of rotation. 

6. Air Outlets. Air outlets are of two kinds.

a.  Wall Outlets. The different kinds are:

1.    Baned outlet

2.    Registers

3.    Perforated Grilles

4.    Ejector Nozzles

b.    Ceiling Outlets

1.    Plaques

2.    Ceiling Diffusers

3.    Perforated Panels

4.    Perforated Ceilings 

7. Control Equipment. Air conditioning equipment and devices are of different kinds. These may be:

a.    Sensing Device. Consists of the following:

1.    Thermostats

2.    Humidistats

3.    Pressure Regulations

b.    Actuating Devices

1. Dampers

2. Control Valves

3. Relays

c.    Indicators

Conditioning Symbols

The air-conditioning layout is drafted on plans. The following are the approved acronyms

ACCU – Air- cooled condensing unit.

WCCA – Water-cooled

CT – Cooling Tower

ATC – Automatic Temperature Control

CAC – Central Air Conditioner

FCU – Fan Coil Unit

AHU – Air Handling Unit

HVAC – Heating and Ventilating Air Conditioner

PAC – Package Air Conditioner

RAC – Room – Air-Conditioner

TR – Tons of Refrigeration

References:

Hepler, Wallach, Architecture Drafting and Design, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1987

Weidhass, Ernest. Architecture Drafting and Design, Allyn and Bacon, 1982

Salvan, George. Architectural Theories of Design, JMC Press, 1986

COMMON ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING TOOLS, MATERIALS, AND EQUIPMENT

A. Tools:

1. Drawing pencil

2. Mechanical Pencil

3. Erasing shield

4. Protractor

5. Triangular Scale

6. French curve

7. Penknife or Pencil Sharpener

8. Compass

9. Dusting brush

10. Technical Pen

11. Templates

12. Leroy lettering pen

13. Tape rule/Pull-push rule

14. Eraser

15. Sanding Block

B. Materials:  

1. Drawing paper

2. Tracing paper

3. Masking tape

C. Equipment:

1. Drawing board/table

2. Drawing Stool

3. Drafting Machine

4. Personal Computer

ARCHITECTURAL WORKING DRAWINGS

 The architectural working drawings provide information on the designs, locations, and dimensions of the elements of a building.

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL WORKING DRAWING

A complete architectural working drawing of a house generally includes the following: 

ARCHITECTURAL SHEETS

PERSPECTIVE is the view as seen by the eyes or it shows the appearance of the finished building.

SITE DEVELOPMENT PLAN is the outline and measurements of the proposed building and its placement on the property; and the position and the location of the building with property line, setbacks, approaches, grade contours, landscape, and other pertinent data about the site.

LOCATION PLAN is the top view of the site or lot which shows the position of the house inside the lot, the number of adjacent lots, streets, or lanes before or beside the lot, and the North Arrow sign. The location plan is usually located near the title block.

TITLE PAGE AND INDEX generally include title block, table of contents, labels, and the name of the duly licensed and registered Geodetic Engineer who approves the lot survey plans.

TITLE BLOCK OF HOUSE PLAN. The title block in house plans includes the following information: Owner’s name; Location or address of the proposed house; Lot and block numbers; Signature of an architect or civil engineer who approves the plan; Draftsman’s name or initials; Date when the plan was drawn or completed; and Scale.

FLOOR PLAN is the top view of the floor area of a house. ELEVATION is the front or side view of a building which shows the design of the house, height dimension, materials finish, and complete specification.

SECTION is the view showing the inside part of the building either in cross-section or a longitudinal section.

ROOF PLAN is one showing the outline of the roof and the major object lines indicating ridges, valleys, hips, and openings.

REFLECTED CEILING PLAN is the complete plan design of the house ceiling.

BALUSTER DETAIL is the detail of the vertical railing along a staircase or balcony railing.

DOORS and WINDOWS SCHEDULE is a complete specification of doors and windows in terms of width, height, types, materials, and quantity.

KITCHEN DETAIL is a drawing of the kitchen floor plan with complete specifications.

TOILET and BATH DETAIL is a drawing of the toilet and the floor plan that shows the complete features of the toilet and bath.

STRUCTURAL SHEET

FOUNDATION PLAN a structural excavation plan of footings and walls of a building. 

ROOF FRAMING PLAN A structural framing plan of the roof plan with complete specification.

TRUSS DETAIL a complete structural detail of a common or typical truss of a building.

COLUMN/FOOTING/BEAM SCHEDULE a complete specification of the column, footings, and beam in terms of sizes, materials, and quantity.

FOOTINGS are a part of the foundation directly supporting the column or post of a house. A detailed drawing of building footings with specific requirements.

CONSTRUCTION NOTES a sub-complete detail of wall footings, lintels, beams, and other required structural features to present in the plan.

GENERAL NOTES a complete specification and legend of structural features presented in the plan. 

PLUMBING SHEETS

PLUMBING PLAN / PLUMBING LAYOUT is the complete drawing detail of water and sewage distribution.

WATER SYSTEM PLAN / WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLAN is the drawing of the flow of water in the house from the main water source.

SEWAGE SYSTEM PLAN is the drawing flow of sewage from the house to the main canal and septic tank.

STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM shows the flow of water waste from the lavatory, floor drain, and downspout from the roof to storm drainage.

SEPTIC TANK is the depository of human excreta and a drainage reservoir for all washing done in the kitchen and bathroom. The main section of the septic tank is the digestive chamber and the leaching chamber.

ELECTRICAL SHEETS

ELECTRICAL PLAN a plan consists of a lighting plan, power layout, and specification details of the house.

LIGHTING LAYOUT an electrical plan that shows the flow of house lighting.

POWER & AUXILIARY LAYOUT an electrical plan that shows the flow of convenience outlets and other auxiliary outlets in the floor plan.

PROCEDURE IN SETTING UP DRAWING TOOLS, MATERIALS, AND EQUIPMENT, AND STANDARD PROCEDURE

In preparation for a required task in drawing architectural layouts and details, a draftsman should plan, prepare, and select tools and materials for a particular planning layout. This is to ensure the correct setting of standard procedure and the accuracy of drawing plans. Some of the key tools used in drafting architectural plans are described and illustrated in this learning Outcome.

 The drawing tools, materials, and equipment are very expensive items; however, these are important in all drafting tasks. Considering its cost and value in drafting activity, it is also important to take care of and maintain its usability.

With this, the following considerations are strictly emphasized as Standard Operating Procedure during and after the utilization of the drafting tools, materials, and equipment:

a.  Before the start of the drafting activity:

1.   Select the tools, materials, and equipment that are needed in the assigned task.

2.   Properly set up the required tools and materials in a place that is convenient for you to move and execute your work.

3.   Clean the table and tools, see to it that these are free from the dust and other elements that would cause damage to your work. 

4.   Wash your hand with clean water.

b.   Activity proper:

1.   Perform the activity by following the standard operating procedure per job requirement.

2.   Properly manipulate all the tools and equipment that are used in the activity.

3.   In case of meeting errors or mistakes along the way of activity (for instance misprinting of lines, letters, and other forms of mistakes) use an appropriate eraser for a particular mistake. 

c.   After the activity:

1.   Submit your output to your teacher for checking

2.   Check all the tools and materials to ensure that nothing has been lost.

3.   Return the tools and materials to the assigned tool keeper for safekeeping.

4.   Withdraw your borrower’s card from the tool keeper as a document that you have returned the borrowed tools and materials.

5.   Clean your workstation before leaving.

Reflected Ceiling Plan is an architectural plan that shows the design of the ceiling of all areas of the house, both interior and exterior areas, with all its specifications and dimensioning system.

Features of the Reflected Ceiling Plan

1.   Ceiling Board

2.   Ceiling fixtures

3.  Ornaments

a.    Moldings

4.   Ventilation or vents

5.   Dimensioning system

6.   Specification

 Types of Ceilings

1. Flat Ceiling

   • A simple, level ceiling without any slopes or curves.

2. Tray Ceiling

   • A ceiling with a recessed center, creating a "tray-like" effect.

3. Coffered Ceiling

   • A ceiling with sunken square or rectangular panels framed by beams.

4. Vaulted Ceiling

   • A ceiling that slopes upward to form a high, open space, often like an arch.

5. Cathedral Ceiling

   • A high ceiling with two sloping sides that meet in the middle, resembling a church.

6. Cove Ceiling

   • A ceiling with curved edges that connect smoothly to the walls.

7. Beam Ceiling

   • A ceiling where wooden or metal beams are exposed, adding a rustic or industrial look.

8. Drop (Suspended) Ceiling

   • A secondary ceiling hung below the main ceiling, often using tiles in a grid.

9. Stretch Ceiling

   • A flexible material stretched across a frame to create a smooth, modern finish.

10. Barrel Vault Ceiling

• A ceiling shaped like a half-cylinder, often used in hallways or long rooms.

11. Dome Ceiling

• A rounded, dome-shaped ceiling, typically found in grand or decorative spaces.

12. Shed Ceiling

• A ceiling with a single slope, often used in modern or minimalist designs.

13. Plaster Ceiling

• A traditional ceiling made with plaster for a smooth finish, often with intricate designs.

14. Metal Ceiling

• A ceiling made from metal panels, popular in industrial or vintage styles.

15. Wooden Ceiling

• A ceiling made of wood planks or panels for a natural, warm look.

16. Acoustic Ceiling

• A ceiling designed to reduce noise, usually made of sound-absorbing tiles.

17. Painted Ceiling

• A flat ceiling decorated with painted designs, patterns, or murals.

18. Fiberglass Ceiling

• A lightweight ceiling made of fiberglass panels, often used in offices or schools.

19. Glass Ceiling

• A ceiling made of glass to allow natural light into the space.

20. Sloped Ceiling

• A ceiling that angles down or up, typically following the roofline.

21. Vaulted Barrel Ceiling

• A combination of a vaulted and barrel-shaped ceiling, creating a spacious and elegant look.

22. Textured Ceiling

• A ceiling with patterns or textures, often created using plaster or drywall techniques.

23. Pop Ceiling (False Ceiling)

• A decorative ceiling layer made of plaster of Paris for added designs and lighting effects.

24. Mirror Ceiling

• A ceiling covered with mirrors to create the illusion of more space.

Learn more here: 

15 Types of Ceilings

What is Perspective Drawing?

As a presentation drawing, perspective drawing is a visual tool used to showcase house designs by creating a realistic depiction of depth and space, allowing viewers to see how the structure and interior elements will look in three dimensions, giving a more accurate and engaging representation of the final project.

Lines, Points, and Other Features of Perspective Drawing

• Horizon Line: The horizon line represents the viewer's eye level and serves as the foundation for establishing perspective in a drawing. Its position varies based on the viewer's height and the chosen viewpoint, influencing how objects are perceived in relation to one another.

• Top View or Floor Plan. The top view, also known as a floor plan, is a two-dimensional representation of a building or space as seen from directly above. It outlines the layout, including walls, doors, windows, and other architectural features.

• Vanishing Points: These are points on the horizon line where parallel lines appear to converge. The number of vanishing points used can vary:

  • One-Point Perspective: Utilized when viewing an object head-on, where all lines converge at a single vanishing point.

  • wo-Point Perspective: Employed when viewing an object from an angle, involving two vanishing points along the horizon line.

• Vanishing Lines: Lines that lead from the edges of objects to their respective vanishing points, helping to create the illusion of depth. These lines guide the placement of other elements within the drawing.

• Visual Rays: Visual rays are construction lines [imaginary lines] that extend from the observer's eye [station point] to various points in the scene being drawn. These rays help to determine how objects are viewed in relation to the horizon line and vanishing point.

• Picture Plane. The picture plane is an imaginary flat surface that represents the boundary between the three-dimensional world and the two-dimensional drawing. It can be thought of as a window through which the scene is viewed, influencing how objects are oriented in relation to the viewer.

• Station Point. The station point is the specific location of the observer’s eye relative to the scene being drawn. It determines how objects are perceived in terms of size and perspective; changing this point alters how depth is represented.

• Picture-Plane Line. The picture plane line is an imaginary flat surface that exists between the observer (eye point or oculus) and the object being viewed. It is typically considered to be perpendicular to the line of sight and serves as a reference for projecting three-dimensional objects onto a two-dimensional medium, such as paper or canvas.

• Ground Line. The ground line is defined as the line of intersection between the ground plane and the picture plane. It serves as a reference point for establishing the surface on which objects rest in a drawing.

• Elevation View. An elevation view is a two-dimensional representation of one side of a building or structure. It provides a vertical depiction of the facade, allowing artists and architects to understand the proportions and heights of various elements in relation to each other.

• Measuring Line. A measuring line is an imaginary or drawn line that helps artists establish the relative sizes and positions of objects within a perspective drawing. It serves as a reference for scaling and aligning elements in relation to one another.

• Piercing Points. These are the points on the picture plane where projection lines from a top view (or other reference views) intersect with the picture plane. They are essential for translating three-dimensional objects into two-dimensional representations.

• Piercing Lines. Piercing lines refer to the lines that connect points on an object to the picture plane, indicating where those points intersect with the picture plane. They are used to determine the location of piercing points, which are the actual intersections on the picture plane.

• Horizontal Projection Lines. Horizontal projection lines are lines drawn horizontally from points on an elevation view (the side view of an object) towards a measuring line. The measuring line serves as a reference for establishing the heights and proportions of various elements in the drawing.

• Perspective View. In perspective drawing, the perspective view refers to the visual representation of a three-dimensional object or scene on a two-dimensional surface, capturing the illusion of depth and space. This technique is essential in art, architecture, and design to create realistic images that mimic how objects appear to the human eye.

• Angle of Vision (Cone of Vision). The angle of vision is typically defined as the angular extent of the scene that is visible from a specific viewpoint. This angle affects how objects are represented in terms of size, proportion, and perspective distortion. The standard angle of vision is often around 60 degrees. This angle provides a good balance between capturing detail and minimizing distortion. The angle of vision in two-point perspective is defined by the angular extent of the scene visible from the viewer's station point, which influences how depth and proportions are perceived. It is determined by the placement of the two vanishing points on the horizon line.

Types of Perspective Drawing.

• One-Point Perspective (Parallel). In one-point perspective, there is a single vanishing point on the horizon line. All orthogonal lines (lines that lead away from the viewer) converge towards this point. This perspective is ideal for scenes where the viewer looks directly at the front of an object or along a straight path, such as a road or hallway. It creates a strong focal point and is often used in interior views or landscapes where depth is minimal. Objects appear to diminish in size as they recede towards the vanishing point, creating a straightforward illusion of depth.

• Two-Point Perspective (Angular). Two-point perspective features two vanishing points located on the horizon line. This allows for more dynamic compositions as it captures two sides of an object. It is commonly used when depicting objects viewed from an angle, such as the corner of a building or a street corner. This perspective helps illustrate depth and dimension by showing two perpendicular sides of an object. Unlike one-point perspective, where lines converge at a single point, two-point perspective allows for greater complexity and realism in depicting three-dimensional forms.

• Three-Point Perspective (Oblique). Three-point perspective incorporates three vanishing points—two on the horizon line and one either above or below it. This adds a vertical dimension to the drawing. This type is used when the viewer looks up at tall objects (worm’s eye view) or down from above (bird’s eye view). It is particularly effective for rendering skyscrapers or other tall structures. The addition of the third vanishing point creates a more dramatic sense of depth and height. Vertical lines recede towards this third point, enhancing the illusion of looking up or down at an object, making it appear more dynamic and realistic.

Perimeter

Area

Calculating the area of a rectangle is straightforward. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Formula

The formula for finding the area "A" of a rectangle is:

A = l x w

Where:

l = length of the rectangle

w = width of the rectangle

Example Calculation

Let’s say you have a rectangle with a length of 10 cm and a width of 4 cm.

1. Identify Length and Width:

l = 10 

w = 4 

2. Apply the Formula:

A = 10 x 4 = 40

So, the area of this rectangle would be 40 square centimeters.

Summary

To find the area of a rectangle, simply multiply its length by its width. Ensure that both measurements are in the same unit, and your result will be in square units (e.g. square meters, square feet). This formula is essential in various applications, from construction to landscaping! 

Volume

Calculating the Volume of a Rectangular Prism

Formula

The formula for finding the volume (V) of a rectangular prism is:

V = l x w x h

Where:

l = length of the prism

w = width of the prism

h  = height of the prism

Explanation of the Formula

1. Understanding Dimensions:

• The length is one side of the base.

• The width is on the other side of the base.

• The height is how tall the prism is from the base to the top.

2. Multiplication: The volume is calculated by multiplying all three dimensions (length, width, and height). This gives you the total amount of space inside the rectangular prism.

Example Calculation

Let’s say you have a rectangular prism with a length of 5 cm, a width of 3 cm, and a height of 4 cm. 

1. Identify Dimensions:

   l = 5 

   w = 3 

   h = 4 

2. Apply the Formula:

   V = 5 x 3 x 4

   V = 15 x 4 = 60

So, the volume of this rectangular prism would be 60 cubic centimeters.

Summary

To find the volume of a rectangular prism, multiply its length, width, and height together. Please ensure all measurements are in the same unit, and your result will be in cubic units (e.g., cubic meters, cubic feet). This calculation is crucial in various fields such as engineering, architecture, and packaging!

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