Embedded Files
American imperialism
American imperialism
Left: Video introduction to US imperialism; Right: Depiction of the Mexican-American War
In 1821, European Americans began settling among native peoples in what is now the US state of Texas, the same year that Mexico won its independence from Spain. Settlers operated in the area semi-autonomously but was challenged by the Mexican government; Texas became a state following the Battle of the Alamo and other struggles for independence throughout 1835 and 1836. The United States annexed Texas in 1845 ("Texas Annexation" map section below), an act that was formally recognized by the Mexican government following the US victory in the Mexican-American War (1846-48). In the aftermath of this victory, the US and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) in which Mexico gave up 55% of its land in the north (the now-states of to the US California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and parts of Arizona, Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming - "Mexican Cession" map section below). Six years later, the Gadsden Purchase (gold map section below) added land mass to the now-US states of Arizona and New Mexico. In all of these imperialist acts, Mexicans suddenly became Americans due to border changes that did not consider the deep ancestral roots and cultural identity of their homeland. European Americans settling in the area were part of the ongoing coloinal impact of assimilation of native peoples. Imperial domination by the US has continued to have lasting impact and influence through the present day, as there is an ongoing battle border and racist classification system against Mexican and Central American immgrants.
Establishing governance & the new state
Establishing governance & the new state
After the fall of Maximilian of Hapsburg, Benito Juárez was elected President of Mexico and re-elected in 1871, which was followed by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz from 1876-1911. During this dictatorship, Díaz upheld liberal policy but also practiced intense political repression. In response to Díaz’s rule, the Mexican Revolution (1910-1917) lead to widespread war, hunger, and Mexicans fleeing to the US. In a series of diplomatic actions and repercussions, the US occupied Veracruz, Mexico in 1914 and hunted for resistance leader Pancho Villa in 1916. The Mexican Revolution ended with the creation of the Constitution of 1917, which created restrictions on the church were created and separated funding and education from religion as much as possible; this anti-clericalism led, in-part, to La Cristiada, below. In the midst of La Cristiada in 1929, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party) was formed and would head the Mexican government for the next 71 consecutive years.
Porfirio Díaz
la cristiada - the Cristero wars
la cristiada - the Cristero wars
In the three years leading up to the institution of the current Constitution in 1917 and in pockets of years after, there were uprisings again the church that some sources call “revolutionary anticlericalism” due to anticlerical and secularist clauses in the constitution. Between the years of 1926 and 1929, this response grew violent in what is now referred to as La Guerra Cristera (the Cristero War). The Calles Law (attributed to President Plutarco Elías Calles), which was created to curb church involvement in the state, was set to be more strictly enforced and rebellion broke out due to its decree. The Catholic church in Mexico led boycotts on movie theaters and public transportation, and there was a large teachers’ strike. Groups on both sides of the conflict (pro-church and anti-clerical) resorted to violence and terrorism, and by the end of the next outbreak, the Second Cristero War (1932-1938), tens of thousands of Mexicans on both the governmental and resistance sides had been killed. One source writes, “There were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, but by 1934, there were only 334 licensed by the government to serve 15 million Catholics. The rest had been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, assassination, or not obtaining licenses.” Partly due to these violent conflicts between the Catholic church, Mexican Catholic civilians, and the state, pluralistic practices became more common in following years, although spurts of violence lasted through the 1940s.
the post-colonial state & contemporary religiosity
the post-colonial state & contemporary religiosity
Chiapas, 1994
In contemporary Mexico, issues regarding income, poverty, and wealth distribution have been some of the frontrunning problems for low-income and Indigenous communities. Protests against wealth distribution occurred throughout the twentieth century, especially in the 1960s. According to the Plan Nacional de Desarrollo (National Development Plan), 79.3% of Indigenous Mexicans were under the poverty line, with 40.2% in extreme poverty. In 1994, this arose in the state of Chiapas, where there was backlash against the government for turning their back on Indigenous peoples and other low-income laborers. Inaction regarding uplifting Indigenous rights has been noted among the general population, with the National Commission to Prevent Discrimination reporting that “44.1% of the population believes that the rights of indigenous peoples are not respected and 31.3% believe those rights are only rarely respected.”
The creation of government entities to tend to these issues has been on the rise in recent decades, although there is more work to be done in terms of human rights, political representation, and recognition. Mexican-American filmmaker Rodrigo Reyes wrote of this, saying “The conquest didn’t end on August 13, 1521. It continues to this day because Mexico sadly has a huge problem with racism and classism that forces Indigenous communities to assimilate.”
Many ancient and Indigenous beliefs have survived through the resilience and resistance of Indigenous peoples, leading to the current state of religiosity in Mexico, which is largely a mix between native and contemporary Catholic practices. According to the 2020 census, with 78% of the Mexican population is Roman Catholic, 12% Protestant, other religions account for the 2%, and about 8% is non-religious. While the state is considered relatively secular, civil religion plays a role, as the whole country observes Christmas as a national holiday, and Easter is a break for all children in Mexico.
There are several prominent examples of the aforementioned mix of Indigenous and Catholic tradition, such as high belief in the evil eye, reincarnation, and cosmology. Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) is a huge annual celebration in Mexico, which has roots in pre-colonial beliefs of honoring the dead; at the same time, the use of ofrendas (altars) and rosaries point to Catholic practices. Further, Indigenous song and dance can be seen outside of cathedrals at times of celebration. The traditional Catholic reverence for the Virgin Mary is also depicted in a blend with local tradition in La Virgen de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe), who has darker, Mexican features. Her origin story lies with a peasant to whom she spoke in Nahuatl.
See the next page for a showcase of curanderismo for an example of how Indigenous and colonial tradition blended into a work of contemporary religiosity.
Page updated
Report abuse