Theory of Knowledge- There is not one answer to questions regarding knowledge but countless theories about what knowledge actually is.
Areas of Knowledge- Content areas of: Mathematics, Science, Human Science, History, Arts, and Ethics.
Ways of Knowing- Reason, Emotion, Language and Perception.
Propositional Knowledge- This is knowledge of facts, knowledge that such and such is the case
Knower- Individual with knowledge who has acquired it from different means.
Knowledge Claims- Claims made by someone when they say they “know something”
Problems of Knowledge-Discrepancies in proof or evidence when making a knowledge claim.
Subjective- Belonging to the thinking subject. Knowledge is based on individual experience and thought. (open to interpretation)
Objective- Knowledge adheres strictly to the facts (truth) (right or wrong)
Skepticism- A doubting or questioning attitude or state of mind; The doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible, either in a particular domain or in general
Representationalist- Argues that “here” is a reality; all we have to do is open our eyes to see it. If something is true it is true because it corresponds with the reality around us.
Plato- Student of Socrates. “Unless we can escape our limited perspectives, we never see what is really around us.” Reality is a subjective experience because we are limited and confined to our own human way of seeing things
Descartes- “I think therefore I am”. Nothing can be known except one’s own existence. There is no way to know if there is a reality. His existence was the one and only fact he could actually be sure of. (Skeptic- Nothing can be known with certainty not even the existence of the world around us). “We can not escape our subjective outlook on life to know anything away from ourselves or the way we know things.
Self-Awareness- Knowing what we know. It is a firm form of knowledge and is impossible to convince someone that this type of knowledge is incorrect.
Memory- Is a sound reason for knowledge because we can be sure of it most of the time. Does not necessarily mean it is always accurate 100% of the time.
Deduction- Making conclusions based on premises that are known to be true. (Mathematics)→ Goes from General to Specific…Reason process produces claims which can be proven beyond a doubt, no way to argue them.
Induction- Is claiming knowledge about future events based on past experiences →predicting. (Science, sun rising)
Intuition- Is a feeling, an inherent understanding. It makes us know about something internal; a way of thinking or perceiving something. (Gut feeling)
Revelation- Knowledge has been revealed to someone from some sort of higher power. (Argued that this is not a good reason for claiming knowledge, subjective level).
Faith- Guiding force within people. Belief that is not based on proof. Confident belief in the truth, value, or trustworthiness of a person, idea, or thing
Foundationalism- States that something is knowledge if and only if we are 100% certain of it. Knowledge=Truth, but Truth does not = Knowledge. Certainty is the basis, or foundation of knowledge. Subjective knowledge claims…based on self awareness, memory, perception and emotion, deduction can also be a type of foundational knowledge….does NOT need to be quantified or supported by others for it to be knowledge to the individual knowing the fact.
Pragmatism- Something is knowledge if and only if the proposed bit of knowledge works in real life settings. We do not know anything until we see that it works. (Scientific Knowledge)
Subjectivism- There is no true reality. Any so called reality that there is, is based upon peoples experiences.
Representation- Is something which gives us information about another thing or one thing that stands for another thing. (symbols)
Emotion- An affective state of consciousness in which joy, sorrow, fear, hate, or the like, is experienced, as distinguished from cognitive and volitional states of consciousness. It is affected by Language, Reason and Perception.
Reason- An underlying fact or cause that provides logical sense for a premise or occurrence. It is affected by Language, Emotion and Perception
Perception- Knowledge based on what you see, hear, smell, feel and taste. These affect how we see someone or a situation. It is affected by Language, Emotion and Reason.
Language- Language is a tool of reason. Language is an imperfect medium for relaying everything we can experience and think. Language is the means by which reason is expressed…it can not communicate everything we know (PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE), but at the same time language is the only way to communicate what we know. It is affected by Perception, Emotion and Reason.
Paradox- A seemingly contradictory statement that might actually be true.
Objectivity- Assertion being made is knowledge and not belief or imagination or something else.
Rationality- Process of knowledge claims being based on clear and practical reasons and decision making based on intelligent thinking.
Scientific Method- A method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested
Falsification- To show or prove to be false; disprove: to falsify a theory. When enough people have failed to falsify a claim, the claim becomes accepted as knowledge.
Axioms- In math is a fact that is assumed to be true (Shortest distance b/w 2 points is a straight line)
Biological Threshold- Is a biological predisposition which limits our perceptive abilities to what they are…..these thresholds limit our knowledge of the world. (How much of a stimulus is needed before our sense pick it up…bee sting)
Bias- A bias could lead one to accept or deny the truth of a claim, not on the basis of the strength of the arguments in support of the claim themselves, but because of the extent of the claim's correspondence with one's own preconceived ideas. This is called confirmation bias.
Biological Bias- Is one which is caused by biological factors. They limit what can be experienced and subsequently known. They cause people to “make sense” of situations differently than they otherwise would.
Social Bias- These work on the making sense level of perception. They can be likened to a filter through which people view the world. These are biases which we have learned through our lives in a social environment. They make it impossible to perceive objects in the environment neutrally.
Metaphysics- Study of the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, fact and value
Hypothesis- An educated guess made by scientists in order to carry out an experiment. A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation
David Hume- Philosopher of the Enlightenment…. “Inductive Reasoning is Irrational” He asserted that it is irrational for us to believe that all of these things will happen again in the future(unobserved instances) just because they have happened in the past…... All knowledge is actually the result of past observation.
Expectational Knowledge- The degree of probability that something will occur. (sun will rise tomorrow)
Pseudoscience- Any body of knowledge, methodology or practice that is mistakenly thought of as a science. (PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE: Claims are not backed up by empirical data and are too greatly based upon assumption)…Pseudoscience makes claims that can neither be falsified or verified.
Phenomenological- A philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness and not of anything independent of human consciousness. (Rituals of dating….emotions, feelings buying of chocolate)
Behaviorist- Knowledge claims rest on assumption all of our behavior is learned.
Bio-Psychologist- Assumes that our behavior is determined by our physiology (The scientific study of an organism's vital functions, including growth and development, the absorption and processing of nutrients, the synthesis and distribution of proteins and other organic molecules, and the functioning of different tissues, organs, and other anatomic structures. Physiology studies the normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of animals and plants.
Duping- Intentional Deceit
Correlation- A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relationship, especially a structural, functional, or qualitative correspondence between two comparable entities: a correlation between drug abuse and crime.
Free Will- The ability to choose, think, and act voluntarily. For many philosophers, to believe in free will is to believe that human beings can be the authors of their own actions and to reject the idea that human actions are determined by external conditions or fate. (Seedeterminism, fatalism, andpredestination.)..”selfish gene”
Determinism- (philosophy) a philosophical theory holding that all events are inevitable consequences of antecedent ( prior events) sufficient causes; often understood as denying the possibility of free will.
Holistic Analysis- Human activity occurs in society in connection with other people (can not be viewed in isolation from the greater context of the entire realm of human culture.)
Consensus- Is basing knowledge on the fact that everyone, or at least most people agree that something is knowledge. Basis for how much historical and scientific information becomes seen as fact
Thomas Hobbes- English philosopher and political theorist best known for his book Leviathan (1651), in which he argues that the only way to secure civil society is through universal submission to the absolute authority of a sovereign. (Social Contract)
Social Contract- The voluntary agreement among individuals by which, according to any of various theories, as of Hobbes, Locke, or Rousseau, organized society is brought into being and invested with the right to secure mutual protection and welfare or to regulate the relations among its members. an actual or hypothetical agreement among individuals forming an organized society or between the community and the ruler that defines and limits the rights and duties of each
Relativism- A theory, especially in ethics or aesthetics, that conceptions of truth and moral values are not absolute but are relative to the persons or groups holding them.
Socrates- Greek philosopher whose indefatigable (untiring) search for ethical knowledge challenged conventional mores and led to his trial and execution on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth. Although Socrates wrote nothing, his method of question and answer is captured in the dialogues of Plato, his greatest pupil.
John Stuart Mills- John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, economist, moral and political theorist, and administrator, was the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century. His views are of continuing significance, and are generally recognized to be among the deepest and certainly the most effective defenses of empiricism and of a liberal political view of society and culture. The overall aim of his philosophy is to develop a positive view of the universe and the place of humans in it, one which contributes to the progress of human knowledge, individual freedom and human well-being. His views are not entirely original, having their roots in the British empiricism of John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume, and in the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. But he gave them a new depth, and his formulations were sufficiently articulate to gain for them a continuing influence among a broad public.
Socratic Method- Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) is a dialectic method of inquiry, largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts and first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. For this, Socrates is customarily regarded as the father of Western ethics or moral philosophy. It is a form of philosophical inquiry. It typically involves two speakers at any one time, with one leading the discussion and the other agreeing to certain assumptions put forward for his acceptance or rejection.
Moral Relativism- States that a culture’s morality is part of an intricate framework of tradition, beliefs, practice, history, world view, and feelings that are comprised to make up what we generally call culture. Different cultures have different rules and different ideas of what is right and what is wrong.
Absolutism- Implies that there are definite rights and wrongs that apply all over the world, and for all people. A wrong action would be wrong for anyone, anywhere, at anytime, in any circumstances. It naturally implies that there is some sort of higher, uniting ethical code by which people must live.
Authority- Knowledge we have obtained from others. How much of what we know is actually due to what we have discovered?