Andrewes, William J. H. “A CHRONICLE OF TIMEKEEPING.” Scientific American, vol. 287, no. 3,   2002, pp. 76–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26059969.  Accessed 6 Nov. 2025.

Clocks: Watches and Clocks, with Details of Their Mechanisms. Engraving c.1861. 1 print : engraving. Wellcome Collection, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.24856460.  Accessed 28 Oct. 2025.

Mutlow, H. Clocks: The Mechanism of a Chiming Clock. Engraving by Mutlow. 1 print : engraving. Wellcome Collection, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.24855625. Accessed 28 Oct. 2025.

Paradowski, Robert. “First Mechanical Clock | EBSCO.” EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | Www.ebsco.com, 2022, www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/first-mechanical-clock.  Accessed 28 Oct. 2025.

Suplee, Curt. “A Walk through Time - a Revolution in Timekeeping.” NIST, 12 Aug. 2009, www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popular-links/walk-through-time/walk-through-time-revolution.  Accessed 15 Oct. 2025.

Varley, Cornelius, 1781-1873., and Kennion, E. Clocks: An Escapement Mechanism (Top), and a Pendulum (below). Engraving by E. Kennion after C. Varley. 1 print : engraving. Wellcome Collection, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.24855628.  Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.

Breiding, Dirk H. “The Function of Armor in Medieval and Renaissance Europe - the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” Metmuseum.org, Oct. 2002, www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-function-of-armor-in-medieval-and-renaissance-europe.

Fordham University. “Chain Mail · Medieval London Objects · Medieval London.” Medievallondon.ace.fordham.edu, 2017, medievallondon.ace.fordham.edu/exhibits/show/medieval-london-objects/chainmail.

Haight, David B. “ARMOR Magazine, Mobility, Protection, Precision Firepower, Armor, Future, Multinational Operations, Fort Benning, MCOE, Benning, Maneuver Center, Armor, Army.” Army.mil, 2025, www.benning.army.mil/armor/EArmor/content/issues/2012/NOV_DEC/Haight_Laughlin_Bergner.html. Accessed 13 Nov. 2025.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Chain Mail | Armour.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 9 Feb. 2016, www.britannica.com/technology/chain-mail.

Warner, Antonia J. N. “Relative Tensile Strengths of Chainmail Weaves.” Dspace.mit.edu, 2015, dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/98754.

(writing)

Bardell, David. “Eyeglasses and the Discovery of the Microscope.” The American Biology Teacher, vol. 43, no. 3, 1981, pp. 157–59. JSTOR, 

Bell, Susan Groag. “Medieval Women Book Owners: Arbiters of Lay Piety and Ambassadors of Culture.” Signs, vol. 7, no. 4, 1982, pp. 742–68. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173638. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025.

Cybulskie, Danièle, “Medieval Eyeglasses: Wearable Technology of the Thirteenth Century.” Medievalists.net, 6 Mar. 2016, www.medievalists.net/2016/03/medieval-eyeglasses-wearable-technology-of-the-thirteenth-century/.

Haddock, David D., and Lynne Kiesling. “The Black Death and Property Rights.” The Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 31, no. S2, 2002, pp. S545–87. JSTOR,

https://doi.org/10.1086/345566. Accessed 15 Oct. 2025.

Rendfeld, Kim. “A 13th Century Invention That Changed Lives.” Kim Rendfeld, 17 Feb. 2012, kimrendfeld.wordpress.com/2012/02/16/eyeglasses/.

Images 

(rat for timeline) 

CNN, By Meera Senthilingam. “Black Death Spread by Humans, Vindicating Rats.” CNN, 16 Jan. 2018, www.cnn.com/2018/01/16/health/black-death-plague-spread-by-humans-intl.

(image 12)  Eyeglasses. metal, first quarter 19th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Open: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Artstor, JSTOR,  https://jstor.org/stable/community.18590178. Accessed 28 Oct. 2025.

(image 11)  Unknown maker. Leather Framed Eyeglasses with Iron Nose Clip. leather; iron; fishskin, circa 1700. Science Museum Group; Dunscombe collection of spectacles. Open: Science Museum Group. Artstor, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.26404645. Accessed 28 Oct. 2025.

(EYEGLASSES FOR TIMELINE)

Y, Sean. “Eyeglasses Have a Long and Interesting History, Starting with Their Invention in the 13th Century. Since Then, Eyewear Has Undergone Many Changes as Technology Has Improved and Styles Have Evolved.” Linkedin.com, 2 Feb. 2023, www.linkedin.com/pulse/history-eyeglasses-sean-yang. Accessed 30 Oct. 2025.

Works Cited

Borowski, Tomasz, and Christopher Gerrard. “Relics, Religiosity, and the Military Orders.” Speculum, vol. 92, no. 4, 2017, pp. 1056–1100. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26583619, https://doi.org/10.2307/26583619.

Cavendish, Richard. “Dover Castle | History & Facts | Britannica.” Www.britannica.com, 23 Jan. 2024, www.britannica.com/topic/Dover-Castle.

“Clifford’s Tower, York.” English Heritage, www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/cliffords-tower-york/.

English Heritage. “Medieval Castles | English Heritage.” English Heritage, English Heritage, 2019, www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/histories/medieval-castles/.

---. “Medieval Warfare | English Heritage.” English Heritage, 2019, www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/medieval/war/.

JOHNSON, MATTHEW H. “WHAT DO MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS MEAN?” History and Theory, vol. 52, no. 3, 2013, pp. 380–399. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24542992, https://doi.org/10.2307/24542992.

McAlister, Vicky. “CASTLES and DEFENCE.” Medieval Warfare, vol. 11, no. 4, 2021, pp. 54–57. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/48774865, https://doi.org/10.2307/48774865.

Medievalists.net. “Top 10 Medieval Castles in Wales.” Medievalists.net, 7 June 2014, www.medievalists.net/2014/06/top-10-medieval-castles-wales/.

Pergalias, Vassilis. “A Symbol of Dominance.” Medieval Warfare, vol. 4, no. 3, 2014, pp. 23–25. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/48578351, https://doi.org/10.2307/48578351.

“Review: [Untitled] on JSTOR.” Jstor.org, vol. 19, 2025, www.jstor.org/stable/42586359, https://doi.org/10.2307/42586359. Accessed 14 Nov. 2025.

“Tamworth Castle Receives over £139,000 Funding to Support Local Heritage | Tamworth Borough Council.” Tamworth.gov.uk, 10 Oct. 2025, www.tamworth.gov.uk/tamworth-castle-receives-over-ps139000-funding-support-local-heritage. Accessed 13 Nov. 2025.

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Oil_EasyRead_Super_Large_20pt_Edition/YSO_WbVoKBEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=20+facts+about+windmills+in+medieval+europe&pg=PA60&printsec=frontcover - “Google Books.” Google.com, 2019, www.google.com/books/edition/Oil_EasyRead_Super_Large_20pt_Edition/YSO_WbVoKBEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=20+facts+about+windmills+in+medieval+europe&pg=PA60&printsec=frontcover. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025. Pgs 60-61

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128094518000072 - Ragheb, Magdi. “History of Harnessing Wind Power.” Wind Energy Engineering, 2017, pp. 127–143, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809451-8.00007-2.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3103867?searchText=%2820+facts+about+the+water+wheel+in+medieval+europe%29&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%252820%2Bfacts%2Babout%2Bthe%2Bwater%2Bwheel%2Bin%2Bmedieval%2Beurope%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A9b883efe4796a29ce63088bb190c2ee0&seq=1 - Reynolds, Terry S. “Scientific Influences on Technology: The Case of the Overshot Waterwheel, 1752-1754.” Technology and Culture, vol. 20, no. 2, 1979, pp. 270–95. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3103867. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025. 

https://sidoli.w.waseda.jp/Smil_2004_Energry_World_History.pdf - Smil, Vaclav. World History and Energy. Pgs 549-551 

Weapons - https://www.alehorn.com/blogs/alehorn-viking-blog/medieval-times-the-weapons-of-choice?srsltid=AfmBOooWH-u36QU7bo_BHtnEKMpn6jNqxRVz1L1xlvaFpebqEKZTW2p9 

Castles- https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-medieval-castles/ 

Windmills- https://brewminate.com/medieval-and-early-modern-windmill-architecture-and-technology/ 

Battle Formation- https://www.historyonthenet.com/middle-ages-comprehensive-overview-europe-500-1500

Chain mail- https://loxwoodjoust.co.uk/medieval-chainmail-an-impenetrable-force/  

Eyeglasses- https://thepragmaticcostumer.wordpress.com/tag/medieval-glasses/ 

Mechanical Clock- https://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/time-clocks-middle-ages/ 

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Image 3- www.battlemerchant.com/en/blog/the-chainmail-armor-masterpiece-of-historical-armor-evolution

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Image 11- commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chainmail_closeup-1.jpg

Image12- lembergarmor.com/product/riveted-chain-mail-shirt-for-the-late-medieval-outfit/

Image13- www.outfit4events.com/eur/articles/historical-armor/chainmail-armour/.

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Image 23- https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-waterwheel-4077881 

Image 24- https://www.riotinto.com/en/news/stories/what-you-might-not-know-about-wind-power 

Image 25- https://www.engr.psu.edu/mtah/images/EvansUndershot800.jpg 

Image 26- https://www.engr.psu.edu/mtah/images/EvansOvershot800.jpg  

Image 27- https://www.riotinto.com/en/news/stories/what-you-might-not-know-about-wind-power  

Plate armor-artizanshub.com/products/gothic-full-plate-armor-suit-steel-knight-larp-sca?srsltid=AfmBOopcpKh6Nny3OeLeEvBiXzWsbqiOj8wUGKjsUkG6fHIsChBR_a3J

Chainmail- www.battlemerchant.com/en/blog/the-chainmail-armor-masterpiece-of-historical-armor-evolution

Rat- www.cnn.com/2018/01/16/health/black-death-plague-spread-by-humans-intl.

Waterwheel- https://www.britannica.com/technology/waterwheel-engineering 

Windmill- https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/old-windmill-image-taken-small-european-320944616 

Notre-Dame Cathedral- www.paristoversailles.com/notre-dame-cathedral-tour/.

Battle of Hastings (Senlac hill)- https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/The-Battle-of-Hastings/ 

Universtiy of oxford (reading stone)- https://arkeonews.net/medieval-secrets-revealed-archaeologists-discover-reading-stone-beneath-world-famous-university/