Embedded Files
SOURCE: Lara Croft from Tomb Raider: Definitive Edition. Retrieved from PlayStation. © Square Enix.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The video game industry has grown into one of the world’s most influential cultural forces, shaping storytelling and identity across generations while reflecting broader shifts in media and society. From its commercial inception in the 1970s to its widespread audience today, video games have continued to grow in popularity and, consequently, influence (History.com Editors 2017). Not only are video games impactful in their role as a widely-consumed form of media, video games are also a great representation of the state of society at a given time, reflecting the values of that time and what kinds of storylines were popular. As such, video games have also long been a window into the state of gender equality and representation in society, both reflecting and reinforcing harmful stereotypes about women as passive objects, potentially even rendering them invisible altogether. From classic tropes like the “damsel in distress” to “sexy sidekick”, video games often place women in roles that lack agency and individuality. As gaming becomes increasingly mainstream and reaches even larger audiences, it becomes even more important what narratives games promote about women, as media plays a powerful role in promoting, entrenching, and influencing social perspectives. Gender representation in video games is not just a niche concern; on a societal level, poor representations of women in video games risk perpetuating harmful stereotypes, whereas more complex, empowered representations of female characters can actively challenge traditional gender expectations. On an individual level, playing as a well-represented female character can serve as a liberating and affirming experience for many gamers, even playing an integral role in shaping one’s social identity (Lynch et al., 2025).
Video games shape public imagination and social norms, and understanding representation helps us understand the broader cultural landscape. While critiques of female character tropes have circulated for years in academic and activist communities, such as Adrienne Shaw’s Gaming at the Edge: Sexuality and Gender at the Margins of Gamer Culture (2015), few projects have quantitatively addressed this issue.
Through this project, we hope to tackle the question: How has the representation of female characters in mainstream video games evolved from 1980 to 2020 in terms of frequency, narrative role, and agency? Through analyzing the agency that female characters are presented with in video game trends, we hypothesize that while the frequency of female representation in video games has increased, the nature of that representation remains variable, reflecting both deep-rooted traditional perspectives on femininity, as well as the shifting cultural paradigm around gender and sex.
SOURCE: Princess Peach from Super Mario Bros., developed and published by Nintendo. © Nintendo.
SOURCE: Aloy from Horizon Zero Dawn, developed by Guerrilla Games and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. © Guerrilla Games.
The left image features a female character from Super Mario Bros, released in 1985. The right image showcases a female character from Horizon Zero Dawn, released in 2017. A noticeable difference in their depictions can be observed.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The very first video game console, the Odyssey, was commercially sold in 1972, marking the beginning of the rise of video games (History.com Editors 2017). This marked the beginning of the commercialization of video games, as up until then, video games had only been accessible in computer research labs. Although it didn’t gain much traction, it built the inspiration for one of the most iconic games of all time, Atari’s Pong, which was released in arcades in 1972 and then as a home version in 1975. After this, many notable arcade games, which were then turned into video games, were released, such as Space Invaders and Pac-Man.
The Odyssey gaming console, one of the earliest home video game systems. Released in 1972, it marked a significant milestone in the evolution of video gaming. (SOURCE:Magnavox Odyssey gaming console. Retrieved from Wikipedia. © Wikipedia.)
This rise of video games continued strong into the 1980s, with many culturally significant games, such as Donkey Kong (1981), released to the public. Donkey Kong, along with other popular games released in the 80s, such as The Legend of Zelda (1987), saw the prevalence of the “damsel in distress” trope. The “damsel in distress” trope has existed long before video games, yet, regardless of time or place, it always depicts a situation in which “a woman is in peril and needs the help of a man in order to be saved” (Abreu, 2023). Likely gaining traction in the medieval era with stories of knights rescuing hapless maidens (think “knight in shining armor”), the “damsel in distress” trope can be found in virtually every medium of media, presenting the man as a strong, savior-type figure and the woman as helpless and weak, in need of saving.
A poster for Donkey Kong, where the female character embodies the “damsel in distress” trope. This design reflects the traditional portrayal of female characters in early video games, often depicted as helpless and in need of male rescue. (SOURCE: Donkey Kong, developed and published by Nintendo. © Nintendo.)
This trope became widely included in the games of the 80s and 90s, presenting iconic female characters like Princess Peach and Zelda, all of whom needed saving by the main male character. These roles were defined by helplessness, frailty, and a lack of agency. As Cassell and Jenkins (1998) argue, these characters derive their importance to the game through playing the role of a goal for the main character to achieve and a way for the male protagonist to prove his skills, thus thrusting the female character into an objectifying position. During this period, female characters held a passive role, existing as a narrative device to simply motivate the male protagonists (Dietz, 1998). As Anita Sarkeesian notes, many of these character tropes, especially the "damsel in distress," have become ingrained in gaming culture and continue to influence how female characters are portrayed (Sarkeesian, 2013). These representations continued to push the narrative that women were weak and needed a man’s help, and that a woman was an object that could be won.
Princess Peach, gaming’s original “damsel in distress.” (SOURCE: Princess Peach from Donkey Kong, developed and published by Nintendo. © Nintendo.)
The iconic Lara Croft from Tomb Raider, representing a strong female protagonist in a gendered design typical of the 90s. (SOURCE: Lara Croft from Tomb Raider, developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Square Enix. © Square Enix.)
Nonetheless, the simplified portrayal of women did not remain static. Beginning in the 1990s and continuing into the early 2000s, the roles of female characters began to evolve, though often in ways that emphasized increased sexualization (Lynch et al., 2016). One of the most iconic characters of this time was Lara Croft in Tomb Raider (1996), which presented a strong, capable female protagonist. However, despite being celebrated for having such traits, her sexualized design was objectifying, allowing for the game to cater to the male gaze. At the same time that games like Tomb Raider and hypersexualized female characters were gaining popularity, society was experiencing third-wave feminism, which began in the late 1980s. This wave of feminism had a focus on the limitations of previous feminist movements by emphasizing individualism, sexual agency, and intersectionality. This wave could be seen as a response to the types of representation that those games were portraying, encouraging women to fight for different symbols of femininity and sexuality, unlike characters in gaming who were still often designed to appeal to heterosexual males.
This new wave pushed for individuality and value beyond what could cater to men, including freedom in physical appearance. The issues in gender representation at the time were visible in the way that female video game characters were constructed and marketed, and third-wave feminism seemed to pose a direct response to the rise in hypersexualization (Sarkeesian, 2013).
Third-wave feminism: women holding signs of empowerment, symbolizing the fight for gender equality and women’s autonomy. (SOURCE: Third-wave feminism, symbolizing the fight for gender equality and women’s autonomy. Image by Joel Wilkinson. Retrieved via Sutori.)
Protestor holds up #MeToo poster at rally. (SOURCE: Protestor holding up a #MeToo poster at a rally. Photo by Alec Perkins. Retrieved via Wikipedia.)
The 2010s would continue with a positive development. The sexualization of female characters has decreased since the observed height in the 1990s (Lynch et al., 2016). Recent studies show that female characters in video games are still often designed with submissive behavior, exaggerated body shapes, and secondary narrative roles, which reinforces traditional gender bias in digital media (De la Torre-Sierra and Guichot-Reina 532). In mobile games like Honor of Kings, male characters are often portrayed with muscular builds and dominant roles, while female characters are designed with exaggerated physical features and often serve as aesthetic accessories (Liu et al. 3). However, during this time, the indie game industry began undergoing a boom in popularity. Unlike Triple-A games, which are “games well-funded by big corporations that focus on trying to deliver games to a large audience, mainly with the interest of getting money out of it”, indie games are games created by small independent developers (Wu, 2025). Unlike Triple-A games that are well-funded by large corporations, indie games “focus less on trying to make a profit and are pushed more by their actual passion for creating games instead… [i]ndie games are able to release whatever they want on their own schedule, and they don’t have to worry about it not being widely loved by the public. They’re more focused on their vision for the game rather than how other people may perceive it” (Wu, 2025). Indie games and titles began to introduce more complex, novel female leads, as opposed to the one-dimensional characters produced in the 1980s (Kumaraguruparan, 2025). The rise of indie games allowed for more experimentation and diversity because smaller studios were more willing to center women, queer characters, and people of color in their narratives. Because they aren’t built to mass public reception, indie games can focus more on specific stories that creators want to tell, making more room for complex, diverse, and untraditional stories. This period also coincides with the beginning of fourth-wave feminism, which showed an increase in social media usage with technological developments to raise awareness, share stories, and challenge systemic sexism (Alexander, 2021). Campaigns such as #MeToo and #YessAllWomen, as well as support for the LGBTQ+ community, influenced the content of video games. In addition, due to a change in cultural attitudes toward gender and representation in the US, major policy and legal changes took place during this decade. In 2013, there was a lifting of the ban on women in military combat roles; in 2015, there was the legalization of same-sex marriage nationwide (Cloud, 2013). These major milestones, as part of the broader cultural change, are reflected in the stories and characters featured in newer video games.
Madeline (Celeste)
Madeline faces personal struggles and mental health challenges, using her strength and determination to overcome obstacles in a challenging platformer. (SOURCE: Madeline from Celeste, developed by Matt Makes Games. Retrieved from Polygon. © Matt Makes Games.)
Gris (Gris)
Gris navigates a world full of emotion and beauty, overcoming grief and discovering her inner strength through a symbolic journey. (SOURCE: Gris from Gris, developed by Nomada Studio. Retrieved via Steam. © Nomada Studio.)
The Hunter (The Pathless)
The Hunter is a fearless, agile character known for her exceptional archery skills, exploring a vast world while tackling challenges that test her independence. (SOURCE: The Hunter from The Pathless, developed by Giant Squid and published by Annapurna Interactive. Retrieved from gamereant. © Giant Squid.)
HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
Building on these cultural and historical trends, we hypothesize that while the frequency of female character representation in mainstream video games has indeed increased significantly from 1980 to 2020, the quality of that representation—in terms of narrative role and agency—remains highly variable and often inconsistent in both the message they deliver about female characters and the target audience of these messages.
While female characters are more present today across genres and platforms, their portrayals remain uneven. Many continue to reflect limiting stereotypes or serve secondary narrative functions, even as others signal meaningful shifts towards autonomous, multidimensional figures that are beyond the “damsel in distress” and “sex sells” approach. By analyzing both the quantity and depth of female representation across these decades, our study aims to illuminate where genuine progress has been and where significant gaps persist.
METHODOLOGY
METHODOLOGY
To evaluate this hypothesis, we will conduct a mixed-methods content analysis that combines (1) quantitative data on representation frequency with (2) qualitative assessments of narrative role and agency through investigation and literature review. Our approach will ensure both a broad overview of trends and a deep exploration of individual cases.
To establish the general trend and cultural shift of video games, we will compile a representative sample of the top three major genres per decade from 1980 to 2020, chosen based on two criteria:
Role as a “damsel in distress” within the video game;
Genre (Action, Adventure, etc., as this influences the role of the female characters).
This sampling aims to balance mainstream influence with diversity in gameplay and narrative style. Another way we will develop the trend is to use a dataset that gives overall ratings of the sexualization score of video games and average out the most influential games to observe any trends or stagnation of sexualization changes.
We will document the sexualization of significant female characters (playable or non-playable), and we will determine the correlation between the sexualization scores and the ratio of female characters within the entire video game. Sexualization is determined through the following four metrics, as described by Palomar in the dataset’s metadata document:
Sexualized clothing: If the character shows unnecessary amounts of cleavage or upper thigh, or is wearing clothes that are not appropriate for the environment of the video game (wearing high heels for running, or “armor that does not cover vital organs”) (Palomar);
Trophy: If the female character acts as someone that the male character has to “win”;
Damsel in distress: If the female character acts as someone that the male character has to “rescue”;
Sexualized cutscenes: If the character appears to be overly sexualized in cutscenes, with the focus being on the character’s features that are “usually considered sexually appealing, such as cleavage, breasts, pubic area, and buttstock” (Palomar).
By separating them into these four categories, we are able to have an in-depth understanding of the way sexualization is defined in video games.
We will also use descriptive statistics to track the frequency of female characters by decade to see if their prominence in general increases irrespective of the role they play in the game (not including characters completely uninvolved in the narrative or those who have no agency). In addition to the quantitative statistics detailing the frequency of female characters, we also hope to emphasize analysis of the role women play in video games. Shaw points out that “[j]ust as stereotypes are neither inherently good nor bad, judgments about what counts as a ‘positive’ or a ‘negative’ representation are political questions and must be interrogated as such… [t]he relative positive or negative qualities of portrayals exist not within texts themselves but rather within the social hierarchies, disparities, and power relation to which they refer and that they support” (Shaw 20). Simply having an increased frequency of female characters is not necessarily indicative of improved representation, and it is important to recognize that representation often is not black-and-white in terms of whether it is good or bad. Through doing a thorough qualitative analysis on the roles each female character plays, we can specify where and what shifts we see in representation.
This methodology will allow us to determine not only whether female characters appear more frequently over time, but also whether that increased presence corresponds with greater narrative importance and agency, confirming or challenging our hypothesis.
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