Bibliography

Works Cited

Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Arrests by Race and Ethnicity, 2019.” FBI: Uniform Crime Reporting, 22 Sept. 2019, ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/tables/table-43. 

This research shows us examples of crimes in the United States specifically grouped by race, ethnicity and type of case the individual was arrested. The data is split into three categories with one containing the total number of arrests and then another two datasets with subsets of the case split into two parts, “Arrests 18 and over” and “Arrests under 18.” This data helps us understand what type of arrests are most common among different races and ethnicities using data as the document also pinpoints different parts of each dataset. Not only does the data show us the amount of cases per instance, it also shows us percentages in terms of race. This helps us understand what race commits the most crimes and in specific which crimes are most popular among different races. After examining the document, I would assess the document to be reliable since it is published from the US government, specifically from the Federal Bureau of investigation. This data is useful since it might help us understand motives or different societal factors given different races and ethnicities. More importantly this data helps us assess arrests within the United States which could lead to understanding where the government should put more emphasis on teaching, solving and helping individuals in the United States. Entry by: Amit Hod

Federal Bureau of Investigation. "Hate Crime Statistics." Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, 2024, https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime.

This source provided by the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, compiles hate crime statistics from thousands of law enforcement agencies across the United States. The data is voluntarily submitted by city, county, college and university, state, tribal, and federal agencies, and documents crimes motivated by biases against race, gender, gender identity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. Some of these biases include  anti-Black or African American, anti-Asian, anti-Jewish, and anti-LGBTQ+ incidents. We can use this data to analyze trends in hate crimes and to identify high-risk communities, which may tell a story of more systemic inequities that tie back to gender and race. Because of its interactive format, with filters for specific biases, offense types,  and jurisdictions, the data can be useful for analysis, such as a regression analysis on the specific hate crimes of interest. In addition, the granularity of the data allows for other analyses, such as trend analysis and geographic distribution mapping which may be useful for a DH project analysis like the group project. The data can be used to not only highlight but initiate steps toward solving these injustices, such as by garnering media attention,  encouraging law enforcement to address these community issues, and last but not least, for lawmakers to back legislation. Entry by: Nathan Li

‘Harris, Angela P. "Gender Violence, Race, and Criminal Justice." Stanford Law Review, vol.52, no. 4, 2000, pp. 777-806.

Angela P. Harris illustrates the connections between gender violence, race, and the criminal justice system. She explores how masculine identity influences violent behaviors and creates a unique bond between lawbreakers and law enforcers. Harris argues that gender violence extends far beyond male-on-female violence, highlighting the roles of state actors, particularly the police, in perpetuating this cycle. Her essay emphasizes the need to disrupt these patterns both within and outside the state. This work is essential for my research on gender dynamics in law enforcement, providing a nuanced perspective on how masculinity and race intersect within criminal justice. Harris's insights inform my exploration of systemic reforms to address gender and racial biases. This is a really crucial part in exploring the digital humanities balance in the criminal justice system. Entry by: Jianpu Gao

Iowa Open Data. "Recidivism for Offenders Released from Prison." Kaggle, 2019. Accessed June 17, 2024.

This dataset, first offered by the Iowa Open Data website, measures recidivism by multiple factors, one of them being race. Recidivism is the tendency (measured by statistics reincarceration statistics) of an individual to be reincarcerated after their first release from prison or jail. This source can aid in evaluating the effectiveness of current criminal justice policies and programs across different racial demographics. By analyzing recidivism rates by race, policymakers can assess whether existing rehabilitation programs are equitably effective or if certain groups are being underserved. This insight can lead to intervention programs that address the unique needs of various racial groups, thereby promoting fairness and equity within the criminal justice system. Entry by: Jianpu Gao

JASSAL, NIRVIKAR. “Does victim gender matter for justice delivery? police and judicial responses to women’s cases in India.” American Political Science Review, 19 Oct. 2023, pp. 1–27, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055423000916. 

With data collected from around 400,000 court cases and reports in India, Jassal attempts to provide insight as to how the legal system treats men and women differently. There are a variety of methods used to analyze data such as regression analysis, topic modeling, and text-based machine learning. Jassal also acknowledges some of the pitfalls and areas of uncertainty within their analysis of the data. Additionally, Jassal acknowledges that gender is not the only lens as to which this data should be examined. A more thorough and comprehensive analysis of this data is what is ultimately required to get a more comprehensive overview of what the data entails.

Using a gender studies and feminist lens, we look at the data from Jassal’s dataset to ultimately determine that women do get treated unfairly when it comes to the processing time of police reports, for both VAW (Violence Against Women) and non-VAW cases. The discrepancy, however, is largely amplified for VAW cases. Entry by: Robert Kang

Judicial Council of California. "Dispositions of Criminal Cases According to the Race and Ethnicity of the Defendant: 2019 Report to the California Legislature as Required by Penal Code Section 1170.45." Judicial Council of California, 7 Nov. 2019.

This report is one made to the California Legislature about the disparities of race and ethnicity in regards to the defendants of criminal cases in California. This information can help illuminate biases that may exist in judicial outcomes, offering a full understanding of how different racial and ethnic groups are treated at various stages of the legal process. Patterns can be identified in case outcomes, differences in conviction rates, and types of sentences (e.g., incarceration vs. probation) among different racial groups. By providing concrete evidence of racial and ethnic disparities in case dispositions, it empowers activists and community leaders to push for changes that promote justice and equality. This can include reforms in prosecutorial practices, sentencing guidelines, and judicial training programs to mitigate bias. Entry by: Jianpu Gao

Mac Donald, Heather. "Fatal Police Shootings and Race: A Review of the Evidence and Suggestions for Future Research." Manhattan Institute, March 22, 2023. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://manhattan.institute/article/fatal-police-shootings-and-race-a-review-of-the-evidence-and-suggestions-for-future-research.

Heather Mac Donald's article examines fatal police shootings and their racial dynamics. Through existing data and evidence, Mac Donald talks about whether racial bias plays a big role in police use of deadly force. This analysis is critical for anyone studying the intersection of race and law enforcement and challenges some narratives while advocating for data-driven policy discussions. Entry by: Preyasi Shah

“Mapping Police Violence.” Mapping Police Violence, mappingpoliceviolence.org/. Accessed 19 June 2024. 

The resource at Mapping Police Violence provides valuable data for understanding one key aspect of the issue. This website focuses specifically on racial disparities in fatal encounters with police.  It offers a comprehensive database of people killed by police across the United States, allowing researchers and advocates to analyze potential racial biases in these incidents. Although its scope doesn't encompass the broader criminal justice system, Mapping Police Violence serves as a significant piece of evidence when examining racial disparities throughout the entire system. Entry by: Anyi Chomtin

National Conference of State Legislatures. "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Criminal Justice System." Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.ncsl.org/civil-and-criminal-justice/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-the-criminal-justice-system.

This source gives an overview of the racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system in the United States. The article talks about the factors contributing to these disparities, including systemic biases, socioeconomic inequalities, and legislative practices. It shows the efforts and legal measures being undertaken to address these issues, giving insights into policy reforms and state-level initiatives aimed at reducing racial and ethnic disparities. This resource is helpful for understanding the nature of criminal justice inequalities and the ongoing efforts to create an equitable system. Entry by: Preyasi Shah

"Racial Inequities in the Criminal Justice System: The Case of Latasha Harlins." College of Law, University of Iowa, ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/docview/2682503809?parentSessionId=j4b%2FtkoMmlcZg94Q%2FU3gY6aNRNxtV5V%2BEMAUK54LgEo%3D&pq-origsite=primo&accountid=14496&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals. Accessed 16 June 2024.

Sourced from proquest via the UC Berkeley library, this article published by the College of Law from the University of Iowa, examines the racial inequities in the criminal justice system, through a story about a young African American girl named Latasha Harlins. In this heartbreaking story of a 15 year old girl, who walked into a liquor market trying to buy orange juice. After she was accused of stealing the beverage, her and the store-owner's wife got into a verbal argument and she decided she didn’t want to buy the drink anymore. After placing the juice on the counter and beginning to walk out of the store, she was shot in the back of the head and killed. The store-owner’s wife was originally sentenced to a 10 years in prison, but it was then reduced to a $500 fine and then placed on probation. This source gives us a story to set the scene of the racial injustice in the courts, followed up by history and more context about the injustices and procedures of the criminal justice system. This source is extremely helpful and reliable, as it gives us a profusely cited document that goes hand in hand with what our research is reviewing, which is the criminal justice system’s discrimination due to race. Entry by: Amit Hod

Schwartz, Stephan A. “Police Brutality and Racism in America.” Explore (New York, N.Y.), U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7331505/. 

In this paper, Schwartz argues that racial bias is a deep-rooted problem in American policing, leading to excessive force against Black and Brown people. He cites data on police killings and arrests, highlighting the disproportionate impact on minorities. Frustrated by the lack of progress since the Civil Rights era, Schwartz urges white voters to elect officials committed to dismantling systemic racism within the criminal justice system.  Entry by: Anyi Chomtin

Shivamb. “1: Solution Workflow - Science of Policing Equity.” Kaggle, Kaggle, 4 Dec. 2018, www.kaggle.com/code/shivamb/1-solution-workflow-science-of-policing-equity. 

The dataset, on the science of policing and equity that Shivam Bansal compiled in Kaggle, is a case study. It provides a lot of information about police contacts such as stop-and-frisk data, arrest records and demographic details of people involved. The data set also gives essential figures that are used for analysis like racial disparities, use of force incidents and general effectiveness in terms of policing practice. By utilizing these statistics, researchers can observe how the activities associated with policing affect different communities and where some changes need to be initiated. Information obtained from this examination would contribute towards deliberations on social justice, policy formulation and equal treatment within the criminal justice system. This comprehensive approach allows stakeholders to come up with evidence-based strategies aimed at improving fairness and accountability in law enforcement. Entry by: Ethan Chen

Soriano, Federico. "Gender Pay Gap Dataset." Kaggle, 2023. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/fedesoriano/gender-pay-gap-dataset.

This dataset compiled by Federico Soriano on Kaggle gives information on the gender pay gap across various countries and industries. It has metrics like average salaries, median salaries, and gender-specific salary data, which can be used to analyze disparities in earnings between men and women. While primarily focused on economic inequalities, the dataset gives context for exploring how gender-based economic disparities intersect with broader social justice issues, including those in the criminal justice system. We can use this data to draw connections between economic inequality and its implications for gender-specific experiences within the criminal justice system. Entry by: Preyasi Shah

The Sentencing Project. "State Data 2024." The Sentencing Project, 2024, https://www.sentencingproject.org/research/us-criminal-justice-data/. 

This dataset from The Sentencing Project provides detailed state-level data on key metrics related to the criminal justice system in the U.S., such as imprisonment rates, racial disparities, youth custody rates, and felony disenfranchisement. The data looks at various states along with federal prisons, highlighting specific indicators that may be useful for understanding the intersection between gender and race within the criminal justice system. It is structured into a clear tabular format, with each row representing a different state and columns for various metrics, making the data easy to use when comparing different states and trends across the country. In addition, this makes the data  easily transferable to other external software, such as Python. The format also allows for quantitative analysis and visualizations, which is useful for the data analysis portion of the group project. We can use this dataset to compare state-level incarceration data for youth and adults, including racial/ethnic disparities and estimates on felony disenfranchisement impact. Most of it is presented uniformly, such as the imprisonment rate being expressed per 100,00 residents, along with the youth custody rate per 100,000 youth, allowing for ease of comparison when looking at incarceration levels and impact. Overall, the dataset provides a  foundation to explore systemic inequities and learn more about the advocacy efforts aimed at reforming justice policies. Entry by: Nathan Li

Turner, K.B. The Effect of Gender on the Judicial Pretrial Decision of Bail Amount Set, www.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/70_1_8_0.pdf. Accessed 19 June 2024.

This source discusses credibility of the widely assumed fact that women and men are treated differently in the criminal justice system. Specifically, it investigates the differences in bail amount between men and women. The term “Paternalism” refers to an emerging theory that states men generally assume women to be childlike and are thus not responsible for their own actions. The data in this study show that there is no statistically significant difference between the bail amounts between men and women. This assumption of “Paternalism” shows a bias deeply rooted in society that women are treated differently than men within the criminal justice system. The results show that there is a disparity in bail amount set when categorized by gender and race. However, those differences are likely due to chance and are within sample error. Each of the differences cannot be considered as statistically significant. However, a more significant statistic appears to be type of attorney the defendant chooses the acquire. The defendants who choose to acquire private attorneys tend to have higher bails set when compared to those who choose publicly appointed attorneys.   Entry by: Robert Kang

United States Government. “U.S. Census Bureau.” U.S. Census Bureau Quick Stats: United States, www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/RHI125222. Accessed 21 June 2024. 

This source provided by the United States government displays what they call, “Quick Facts” about the United States population. This source is as reliable as it gets for a sample size this large, and is the most reliable as the United States government has all of this information compiled in a database of sorts that they are obligated to share. One downside of this source is that it states that, “Some estimates presented here come from sample data, and thus have sampling errors that may render some apparent differences between geographies statistically indistinguishable.” With this in mind we can’t label this data as exact numbers, but I think for the sake of this project, these estimates have small enough errors to not affect my findings. It has many statistics about the United States Economy, Housing, Health, Income, and much more for an array of years. For this research we are using information about the population specifically about the proportion of individuals that are from each race. For my research specifically, which investigates the relationship between arrest rates and and race, these statistics provided me with the information needed to find the approximate number of individuals in each race group in the United States. By cross-referencing this with the data that I found from an alternate website I was able to find the arrest rate by race which was extremely useful for my project. Entry by: Amit Hod

United States Department of Justice. "Correctional Populations in the United States, 2022: Statistical Tables." Office of Justice Programs, https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/correctional-populations-united-states-2022-statistical-tables. Accessed 16 June 2024.

Sourced using the UC Berkeley library, this is a database from the United States Department of Justice that gives quantitative data from 2012-2022 about the population that is either under probation or under supervision of parole agencies or in county and federal jails. It gives us an array of statistics, providing insight on race, general population and more, that allow us to gain an insight about the type of number of people that are under the criminal justice system. It provided the user with ten csv files, each with a different focus and a pre-calculated list of statistics based on a specified topic. This source is the most reliable that it can get, as these numbers are provided from the government. They may be cleaned in some way, but simply with the access to resources that we currently have, this dataset is the best we can get. This source is extremely useful for our project, as it gives us data that is already cleaned up and in a format that is very easy to understand and to apply the knowledge that we have learned to make graphs and conclusions that will support our research topic. Using these findings we can see if there are any observable trends about race or gender in our justice system. Entry by: Amit Hod

United States Sentencing Commission. "Demographic Differences in Federal Sentencing." Demographic Differences in Federal Sentencing, November 2023.

The United States Sentencing Commission’s report investigates sentencing disparities based on demographic factors from fiscal years 2017 to 2021. The study used multiple regression analyses to explore whether differences in federal sentences persisted across race, ethnicity, gender, and other demographic variables. Key findings include that Black and Hispanic males received longer sentences than White males, with Black males receiving sentences 13.4% longer and Hispanic males 11.2% longer. Additionally, the likelihood of receiving a probation-only sentence was significantly lower for Black and Hispanic males compared to White males. This report highlights that demographic disparities are more pronounced in the initial decision to incarcerate rather than the length of the incarceration.This comprehensive analysis provides crucial insights into systemic biases in federal sentencing practices. The refined regression model and the focus on both probation and incarceration decisions offer a detailed understanding of where disparities occur. This report is invaluable for my research on criminal justice reform, providing robust data and methodological approaches to examine and address sentencing inequalities.  Entry by: Joesph Jiwon Joo

Zatz, Marjorie S.. "16. THE CONVERGENCE OF RACE, ETHNICITY, GENDER, AND

CLASS ON COURT DECISION MAKING: LOOKING TOWARD THE 21ST

CENTURY". Introduction to Criminal Justice: A Sociological Perspective, edited by Charis E. Kubrin and Thomas D. Stucky, Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2013, pp.

203-218. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503627352-019

Marjorie S. Zatz's chapter illustrates the intrinsic pathways in which race, ethnicity, gender, and class intersect to influence court decision-making and the final results. She reviews major findings from studies focusing on these individual dimensions and explores their interaction through case studies such as the prosecution of crack mothers and the O.J. Simpson trial. Zatz also discusses contemporary crime control policies, like the war on drugs and automatic transfers of youths to adult courts, pointing out how these policies are linked with race, gender, and class. This work is crucial for understanding the multifaceted influences on criminal justice decisions. Zatz's comprehensive analysis provides a valuable theoretical and empirical foundation for examining how intersecting social identities shape legal outcomes. Her insights helps my research on systemic biases in court processing and sentencing, offering a nuanced perspective on how to address these issues within the criminal justice system.  Entry by: Ethan Chen

Zikazika. “Analysis of World Crime.” Kaggle, Kaggle, 20 Mar. 2019, www.kaggle.com/code/zikazika/analysis-of-world-crime. 

It is a dataset that extensively examines global crime statistics, compiled by zikazika on kaggle. It gives comprehensive statistics about several types of criminal activities, such as drug offenses, thefts and homicide rates in different countries and regions. The data can be used to study crime trends worldwide, identify trends, and assess the effectiveness of different criminal justice programs. By reading through this information we can get insights on social, political and economic factors that affect crime rates and how these variables interplay. Additionally the information would provide an opportunity to scrutinize the differences between levels of crime and outcomes in criminal justice which are indicative of broader implications for fairness and social equity. Discovering ways to deal with crime and foster more just systems around the world by accessing this data will happen. Entry by: Ethan Chen