Explanation of Research

This research paper was designed to examine 1) the convoluted origins of stuttering, 2) the treatment options for stuttering, 3) the stigma of stuttering in school 4) the media´s depictions of stuttering, 5) the potential solutions to the stigma of stuttering. In the end, it is an investigation into the world of stuttering, and how stuttering can impact an individual, a society, and how best to accommodate stuttering people in an ignorant world, as prescribed by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal # 10 Reduce Inequalities. 

Research Paper

Michael Woodward

Ms. Stone

JAGS Senior Capstone Research

May 3, 2024

A Thorough Investigation into the Stigma of Stuttering

Ever since humans first spoke, there has been an expectation that the speech be fluid and easily understood. In a modern world dominated by technological advancements designed for the purpose of efficiency, the expectation has grown for the speech of some–which has resulted in some people being kind of left behind as the world has raced ahead with fast cars and machinery. There can be zero uhhs or buh buh buhs, only perfection and no idiosyncratic inefficiencies. The people left behind are people who stutter. They witness the jokes and torment at a very young age within popular media. They witness the torment in their personal lives, with parents lacking understanding. They witness the ridicule received during their public lives within school. This stigma is caused by a multitude of factors, primarily the lack of education surrounding stuttering, the media´s general depiction of stuttering, and rash assumptions regarding the mental state of the stuttering person. The ultimate purpose of this research is to fully comprehend the reasoning behind the stigma, identify the factors at play, and to offer solutions to defeat the stigma and offer inclusivity to all stuttering people. Equity is very difficult to achieve and maintain, but this paper offers a baseline to examine the workplace and mental health implications.  In order to expel the stigma and to offer possible solutions to the issue, it is necessary to examine the context and the history of stuttering. 

Stuttering has its traces in many ancient civilizations and cultures, and has a profound influence on many religions and societies of that time. People who stutter were first mentioned in 3rd century B.C.E, when the great Roman orator Demosthenes attempted to suppress his speech impediment by placing pebbles in his mouth while practicing for his upcoming speeches. (Klingbeil) This often comical story demonstrates early stuttering treatment, and how there was little scientific knowledge on proper treatment or therapy. This pattern of a lack of understanding regarding proper treatment persists throughout history, and even in the modern age as well. Another famous historical/religious figure, Moses, is also claimed by many scholars to have a stutter as well. According to HA Garfinkel, renowned sociologist and ethnomethodologist, Moses, the great lawgiver, '... the chief of the prophets' according to Maimonides, probably had a speech defect. 'I am not a man of words ... for I am of slow speech, and of a slow tongue', Moses states, and later he pleads '... I am of uncircumcised lips, and how shall Pharaoh hearken unto me'. Most authorities consider these quotations to mean that the fantastical figure stammered, and that he attempted to avoid public speaking due to his stammer. (Garfinkel) From these examples, it is clear that stuttering people have existed for a very long time, and even very notable figures have also had a stutter. This prevalence of stuttering people in important places in society demonstrates that stuttering people have always had a place in society and even a prominence in important pieces of literature, religion, and politics. However, the addition of these historical figures has not contributed to a deeper public understanding of stuttering, and also a deeper understanding of the necessary treatment for stuttering people. 

This pattern of ignorance from many parameters of society is shown today, and throughout history. As previously mentioned, the method of treatment is often less understood, even among experts. There is not a scientific consensus around the origin of stuttering, and is still a hotly debated topic regarding whether stuttering can be curable or if it is an incurable neurological condition. With this ambiguity around its origin and with many pseudo-sciences being produced to suppress stuttering, which, in turn, has led to a greater negligence of the actual origin of stuttering, and the public conscience surrounding stuttering. It is important then to examine the convoluted origins of stuttering from scientific explanation, and the many different treatment options that have been prescribed in the past, even though many could be described as a sideshow scam.

The origins of stuttering are based mostly in theory, and not concrete scientific explanations. According to the National Stuttering Association, stuttering has no set condition, and it's more, ¨a combination of factors, including genetics, language development and environment.¨ (Smith, A, & Webster)There are certain situations in which stuttering is more so induced, but the actual neurological condition of stuttering is less understood. To start with the conditions that cause stuttering, it is necessary to dive into the ever-changing consensus regarding the origin of stuttering. One theory/factor that has been historically hypothesized is abnormalities in the tongue, popularized in Ancient Greece. This evolved into the whole speech system, from the mouth to the tongue to the throat in the 19th Century. From this belief, treatment was based around physically changing the speech apparatus, usually from plastic surgery. This use of plastic surgery led to more disabilities as mutilations of the speech system occurred, with little success from the plastic surgery. An example of a mechanism used to tamper with the speech system were artificial weights placed on tongues, which showed minimal results. In the 20th Century, the consensus around stuttering revolved around stuttering being a psychogenic disorder, leading to stuttering being considered a neurotic disorder, which led to the modern-day speech therapy, in which patients are “talked through” their stutter. In turn, psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches attempted to solve the neurotic conflicts, which could have arisen as a result of experience with others and personality traits. However, this belief was refuted in later years. (Büchel C, Sommer M.) A commonality found within these stuttering treatments is its lack of thorough understanding of the stuttering person. They were often viewed as people who needed to be solved, not necessarily accepted. Like people diagnosed with behavioral disorders in the past, they were viewed more so as patients rather than people– a problem needed to be “fixed.” This demonstrates how stuttering people are often viewed in society, and the issues that can arise from being viewed as an issue that needs to be fixed, rather than a general acceptance of the stutter in order to be better acclimated and understood in society. This lack of understanding is clearly shown in the media’s depiction of people who stutter, which has also led to society producing a stigma around stuttering.

The media’s depiction of stuttering has heavily contributed to the stigma surrounding stuttering present in modern society, and it is important to examine these depictions of stuttering and refute many of its harmful stereotypes and misconceptions that led to the stigma. Stuttering people in media and popular culture are often viewed as ‘humorous, nervous, weak, unheroic, or villainous.’ They are often viewed as a dragged out comedic gag, a tool to gain quick laughs from the supposed hilariocity of someone speaking without fluency. The common stuttering character most people think of is Porky Pig (created in 1935), a Looney Toons character viewed as timid, incompetent, or unintelligent due to his speech impediment. (Johnson 246) This character shaped the childhood of many kids from that generation and on, and perpetuated this stereotype of stuttering that has lasted until modern-day. His most iconic line, “That’s all folks!,” is repeated and impersonated commonly in American culture, and is a staple line that many attribute to Porky Pig and his stutter. From this archetype, it is shown that most children were taught wrong and harmful stereotypes from a very young age, and this contributed to the stereotypes persisting despite tons of research that do not support this popular rendition of a stuttering person’s mannerisms and personality. Thus, an average cartoon-watcher would have a misconstrued perception of stuttering, and probably translate this perception into behavior, through bullying or from continued popular culture depictions in the future. Simple Youtube searches show videos of Porky Pig’s “longest stutter” with thousands of views, as viewers all laugh at the speech impediment. Another example of stuttering people being viewed as weak or timid is through Professor Quirrel in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. Quirrel is ultimately the villain in the story, and is thought to be mischievous or malevolent. His stutter is used as a mechanism to demonstrate this fact, and he’s thought to be weak due to his stutter. Who would expect the poor stuttering Professor Quirrel to be the villain? This trope is often used when people are hiding some secret in popular culture.  Once again, in a movie close to the modern age, there is a rampant depiction of stuttering that is untrue in regards to many stuttering people, and can be harmful through the perpetuation of these stereotypes. With these stereotypes, it can lead to less equity for stuttering people in society.

To further explore these stereotypes, it is necessary to investigate how stuttering stereotypes can affect the average stuttering person, and can further magnify the stigma. To transition back to the points of treatment, the popular monster study found that stuttering people can be negatively affected by the people around them, and this can induce more stuttering and a reluctance to speak. (Silverman) From this study, it is evident that stereotypes around stuttering negatively affect many stuttering people, and can lead almost to a self-fulfilling prophecy of being quiet or timid and to a lower self-esteem and an overall poor mental health. Stuttering stereotypes can lead to avoidance of social situations, which can heavily impact the development of relationships with others and the confidence to speak in front of others. Self-doubt and insecurity is also prevalent among stuttering people, mainly due to stereotypes. Stereotypes within the family, in which the stuttering child was teased or encouraged to not speak due to the stutter, found that self-doubt and insecurity was highly prevalent, much more than those who were treated like a normal person. (Türkili S) These patterns in behavior and personality can be detrimental to the development of confidence to speak for the stuttering people, and ultimately the ability to lead a strong and fulfilling life. These poor behavioral skills and the overall stigma can lead to difficulties in building relationships and difficulties in the workplace due to discrimination. 

It is very important to build upon the point of difficulties in building relationships and workplace and educational discrimination because those factors ultimately contribute to a better functioning person in society. First, in the workplace it is common for hiring bias to occur. When people stutter, employers may reinforce the idea that stuttering people are nervous during the interview due to the stutter. As a result, qualified individuals who stutter may be overlooked simply due to that communication barrier. Even when the stuttering person gains a position at work, promotion is very difficult. Studies have shown that 85 percent of employers agreed that stuttering decreases a person’s enjoyability and opportunities for promotion. (Parry) Whether consciously or unconsciously, stuttering people face heavy discrimination. Hostile work environments can also occur, where mockery and old stereotypes are enforced onto stuttering people. A huge issue as well is the lack of accommodations for stuttering people in the workplace. Flexible communication methods and different job responsibilities are often needed, and often ignored. Overall, within the workplace stuttering people face discrimination, which can prevent the acquisition of a stable income. 

Along with the workplace, the field of academia and education also contains stuttering discrimination. Stuttering children experience the stereotypes first hand, like bullying, mocking, and exclusionary behavior. These experiences can lead to social isolation and anxiety, which can sometimes contribute to even heightened stuttering. (Craig and Tran) Stuttering students can expect lower academic performance due to stuttering, oftentimes on assignments that require speaking. They can receive little accommodations for those assignments, which once again causes poor self-esteem and self-efficacy when it comes to presentations and speaking participation in general. (Hakan) Overall, this demonstrates that the student-life is not kind to the stuttering student, and there seems to be a lack of education among educators about the needs of stuttering students. In a study examining the awareness of educators in regards to stuttering children, 55.6% of participants reported not having prior experience teaching a student who stuttered in their class. While for the teachers who had taught someone with a stutter, 40.7% of participants reported never speaking about stuttering personally with the student. A lack of knowledge regarding stuttering was at 63% of participants. (Yaruss) While this study is not representative of all of the schools in the world, it is an interesting study of personal relationships with stuttering students and teachers, and the possible lack of education for many teachers regarding the stuttering student’s needs. 

These findings show that stuttering people often feel outcasted by society when these stereotypes are pushed upon themselves at a young age, or even continued throughout their lives. Thus, it is important to juxtapose these two polarizing environments; Environments in which stuttering people are accepted unconditionally, speech therapy in which the client is taught to be one with their stutter, and overall when the stuttering person is taught that there is nothing wrong with their stutter. In contrast to that situation, environments in which stuttering people are not accepted, speech therapy in which the client is taught to run from their stutter, and overall when the stuttering person is taught that there is something wrong with their stutter. This juxtaposition is very important as it highlights how negativity can impact a stuttering person’s ability to flourish in life. First, it is necessary to see the changes that can occur when a stuttering person is accepted unconditionally. Normally, that former anxiety that pesters most stuttering people due to the fear of being made fun of or mocked is gone. Confidence in themselves as a speaker usually heightens, and life in school, in the workplace, and at home is much easier for the stuttering person. Plus, their communication skills overall improve. Stuttering people are harmfully called poor communicators due to their fluency limitations, but with the suitable environment, stuttering people can truly be fantastic orators. Many famous people known for their voice are stutterers, and positive environments have all allowed themselves to flourish in their area of expertise. James Earl Jones, the iconic voice behind the menacing Darth Vader, has a stutter. Joe Biden, the current president of the United States, has a stutter. (The Stuttering Foundation) Under the correct circumstances and environments, stuttering people can succeed just as well as people with normal fluency. Many speech language pathologists have discovered the power of the acceptance of the stutter, and have begun employing the same tactics and techniques to their own speech therapy, focusing on the patient becoming one with their stutter. These speech language pathologists emphasize that the treatment is more of a way of life, in which an individual learns psychological flexibility and learns to live by his or her values. (Palasik) This treatment, as compared to rigid treatment in which patients are taught to learn strategies to suppress their stutter, teaches the patients to accept their stutter, which ultimately gives them the confidence to be effective speakers. There are also other examples of how different, accepting environments can change a stuttering person for the better. Camps and different functions for stuttering children/adults can really change the individual. For example, a camp for stuttering children named “Camp Shout Out” has been very successful in its approach to stuttering. The camp was founded by stutterers, and teaches the youth to not shy away from social situations. The camp employs speech language pathologists and experts alike to help train these children to become effective speakers and to gain an acceptance and almost an appreciation for their stutter. The therapy is treated as holistic, targeting all aspects of therapy, with an emphasis on personal improvement instead of prevention of stuttering. (Camp Shout Out) PERSONAL ANECDOTE: As a stuttering person myself, I attended Camp Shout Out during the Summer of 2023. It was completely different from conventional methods to stuttering that I had gone through, and it taught me that I had a voice. My only regret is that I did not attend the camp sooner. It is clearly evident from the campers that their confidence is rising. Many stuttering kids have never met someone else that stutters, and Camp Shout Out offers the unique opportunity to feel at home. Kids are taught to meditate and control their thoughts and emotions about stuttering through journaling, art, and nature. It feels more like a spiritual retreat than an actual Summer camp. Camp Shout Out is an ideal example of how stuttering treatment should be viewed, and the ideal situations and environment for a stuttering person to succeed. All people who speak at the camp are listened to attentively, and the patience shown by everyone is overwhelmingly grand. If all people acted this way, if all people understood the struggle stuttering has on an individual, if all people had the desirable patience to listen despite disfluency, equity would finally be achieved. In turn, it is vital that environments and situations like this are preserved and encouraged in society, and popular media and depictions have made progressive attempts at furthering this acceptance of stuttering. 

While previous depictions of stuttering people often involve the stuttering person being timid, some modern-day media has begun dispelling that misconception. The King’s Speech highlights the historical figure King George VI’s personal struggle with stuttering, and how he overcame his challenges as a speaker and delivered one of the most important speeches during the 21st century for Great Britain. This depiction of stuttering, while showing the comical aspects of many of the previous treatment options, demonstrates the resilience and renewal that many stuttering people have. The movie accurately displays the social anxiety that many stuttering people suffer through, and the ultimate ability for those same people to triumph over negative stereotypes and the stigma and be a successful leader. (Brotman) Along with The King’s Speech, other forms of media have begun exploring stuttering more in-depth. John Hendrickson, a journalist and author for the New York Times, has been an advocate for stuttering. He wrote the book, Life on Delay, which examines his personal experiences with stuttering as a kid and as an adult. Hendrickson also helped create a video for the New York Times about stuttering, helping to refute many of the misconceptions regarding stuttering. These examples reached millions of people, and contributed to a better understanding of stuttering and to expel much of the stigma regarding stuttering. 

Now, while these examples did help, much more work still needs to be done to accomplish the goal of equity. Throughout history, the stigma has persisted, from Moses to the modern-day. Treatment and research is still relatively an unknown space, and a lack of understanding continues. Media depictions such as Porky Pig are still popular in modern culture, and stuttering people still face severe disadvantages due to stigma in the workplace and in school. Joe Biden, the current president of the United States, is often criticized for his speech even though his stutter is outside his control, and is viewed as old and senile and less intelligent. If 50% of the population does not realize the struggles of stuttering, there still needs to be progress done. So, how can the general population gain the public awareness of stuttering to officially reduce inequalities?

The first step to achieving equity for stuttering people is education. Teaching others about the common misconceptions and negative stereotypes can help end a lot of the stigma that exists in society today. If more people know about the struggles that stuttering people face, the many bullying that many experience, the accommodations needed for people who stutter, stuttering people will be more acclimated to society and lead more successful lives. If teachers know the suitable accommodations and environments for stuttering people, the student will ultimately do better with presentations, relationships, and social life. It can prevent further bullying from occurring if the teacher knows completely what stuttering is and the needs for the student. Along with teachers being educated, parents and families being educated about the needs for a stuttering child can lead to further negativity being expelled. Parents who encourage their kids to speak whenever they want to speak, promote unconditional love, and join stuttering support and treatment groups can ensure that their child will gain the necessary skills to flourish in life. (We Stutter)

The second step is personal anecdotes from people who stutter, like John Hendrickson´s work in the media with his books and videos. These personal anecdotes and stories, often emotional, provide an interesting and alternative perspective to people who don't stutter, and the unique challenges and characteristics of stuttering people. These anecdotes expel the narrative of stuttering people being timid or scared, and demonstrates the strength and resilience of stuttering people (like in The King's Speech). This allows outsiders to understand the other perspectives of stuttering people, and the need for change in our society to further acclimate stuttering people into society. This goes along with education, but provides the emphatic push to the public´s emotional appeal. The anecdotes have become present on media platforms as well, with many creators sharing their personal experiences and stories with stuttering to spread awareness. Emily Blunt, the popular actress behind movies such as A Quiet Place and Oppenheimer, has appeared at stuttering panels and radio stations, such as Howard Stern, to spread awareness about stuttering and share her personal stories about stuttering, which has had a positive impact on improving the public´s sympathy with stuttering people. Along with mass media, social media has led to the improvement of sympathy with stuttering people. Drew Lynch, a comedian with a stuttering impediment, has led a successful career with his humor about his stutter, making the topic less taboo and restrictive and more open. His Youtube account has nearly 2.5 million subscribers with hundreds of millions of views, and his content is comedic but also beneficial in educating the public about stuttering stereotypes and expelling those stereotypes in a thoughtful and insightful manner. These examples demonstrate how stuttering can be applied to mass media, and how its application can lead to greater public acceptance and how to respond to stuttering people in public. 

The third step is protest and activism against stuttering stereotypes, which this paper is directed towards. Activism can be done through many ways, including political and legal activism for equal rights of stuttering people. These court cases and protests can lead to an expanded perception of stuttering people, and more public awareness. For example, Joacine Katar Moreira, an outspoken political activist and stuttering person in Portugal and a member of the Portuguese Assembly of Republic. She has been a strong advocate for stuttering people, and was sometimes misconstrued as incompetent during her election due to her stutter. However, she was able to triumph over the stigma and inspires millions of people around the world for her perseverance through adversity. (The Stuttering Foundation) Alongside the disability rights movement in the 1970s, stuttering was also advocated for. The United States created a stuttering appreciation day (October 22), which educates more and more people about stuttering and the power of words. (The Stuttering Foundation) Also in the United States,   there have been numerous new panels that have appeared in the United States government. For instance, this past November, there was a Congressional Bipartisan Caucus designed around stuttering and other disorders and how best to treat stuttering people in government and in the public, which demonstrates how the government has come to support stuttering people and other disorders throughout the years. (Reps. Cammack and Carter) All of these examples show how stuttering has become more mainstream, both in government and the courts, and how the public consciousness surrounding stuttering has shifted from ignorance to a slightly more comprehensive understanding of stuttering in multiple countries. 

These three steps are critical towards achieving equality for stuttering people, and reducing the stigma surrounding stuttering. As with all people with disabilities, inclusivity is very difficult. Many fail to recognize different perspectives or experiences, and fail to step inside the shoes of others. In order to form a more inclusive society, including all, not only stuttering people, but all people with disabilities or differences is important to achieving equality. As prescribed by the Sustainable Development Goal #10 Reduce Inequalities, hearing the voices of all people, even the ones often silenced, leads to a better world. In turn, I encourage all stuttering people to remove the tape that often dawns the lips of themselves. Stand up with your chest straight and pumped out. Harness the truth and power behind your words and ideas, and use your stutter as motivation to spread awareness and positivity in the world, and not to shy away from uncomfortable situations. As Marcus Aurelius so eloquently wrote, ¨The impediment to action advances action. What stands in the way becomes the way.¨ A speech impediment is solely that, an impediment to speaking. It does not imply that one is unable to speak their ideas, only that there is something in the way. Whether or not one chooses to conform to the obstacle or jump it is up to the individual. But I encourage all people, not only stuttering people, to jump that obstacle. Jump those years of stigma and discrimination with dogged ferocity and determination, and inspire others while you shine in a world that tries to pull you down. Each person has an interior light preparing to engulf the world, and it only requires a little spark, an encouragement, to cause that individual to reach self-actualization and to create a large difference in this world. There's only one you, and it would be a disservice to the world and to yourself if you backed down from speaking your mind. That principle of life, the freedom of speech, was ordained for a reason. And, although there may be a hindrance to that right, the individual contains the unique ability to overcome those obstacles to speech. 

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