Biological Psychology

The biological approach believes us to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view.

Therefore, all that is psychological is first physiological. All thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological cause. A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways:

1. Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior.

2. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior. For example, we could ask how prescribed drugs to treat depression affect behavior through their interaction with the nervous system.

3. Investigation of inheritance: what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of inheritance (genetics). For example, we might want to know whether high intelligence is inherited from one generation to the next.

Each of these biological aspects, the comparative, the physiological (i.e., the brain) and the genetic, can help explain human behavior.

The biological perspective is essentially a way of looking at human problems and actions. Consider an issue like aggression, for example. Someone using the psychoanalytic perspective might view aggression as the result of childhood experiences and unconscious urges. Another person might take a behavioral perspective and consider how the behavior was shaped by association, reinforcement, and punishment. A psychologist with a social perspective might look at the group dynamics and pressures that contribute to such behavior.

The biological viewpoint, on the other hand, would involve looking at the biological roots that lie behind aggressive behaviors. Someone who takes the biological perspective might consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive actions. Or they might consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of behavior.

William James

William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the late nineteenth century, one of the most influential philosophers of the United States, and the "Father of American psychology".

James established the philosophical school known as pragmatism, and is also cited as one of the founders of functional psychology. This laid the foundations for looking at human behaviour from a more physical perspective.

James was a firm believer in pragmatism, a philosophical approach that seeks to both define truth and resolve metaphysical issues. 'If a tree falls in the woods and no one was there to hear it, did it truly fall?' This approach led James to develop his theories around free will.

Free Will

William James developed his two-stage model of free will. In his model, he tries to explain how it is people come to the making of a decision and what factors are involved in it. He firstly defines our basic ability to choose as free will. Then he specifies our two factors as chance and choice. "James's two-stage model effectively separates chance (the in-deterministic free element) from choice (an arguably determinate decision that follows causally from one's character, values, and especially feelings and desires at the moment of decision)."

James argues that the question of free will revolves around “chance.” The idea of chance is that some events are possibilities, things that could happen but are not guaranteed. Chance is a neutral term (it is in this case neither inherently positive nor “intrinsically irrational and preposterous,” connotations it usually has); the only information it gives about the events to which it applies is that they are disconnected from other things – they are “not controlled, secured, or necessitated by other things” before they happen. Chance is made possible regarding our actions because our amount of effort is subject to change. If the amount of effort we put into something is predetermined, our actions are predetermined.

Free will in relation to effort also balances “ideals” and “propensities” – the things you see as best versus the things that are easiest to do. Without effort, “the propensity is stronger than the ideal.” To act according to your ideals, you must resist the things that are easiest, and this can only be done with effort. James states that the free will question is therefore simple: “it relates solely to the amount of effort of attention or consent which we can at any time put forth.”

Chance is, as previously said, the "free element" it is that part of the model we have no control over, the wild stallion if you will. James says that in the sequence of the model, chance comes before choice. In the moment of decision we are given the chance to make a decision and then the choice is what we do (or do not do) regarding the decision.

When it comes to choice, James says we make a choice based on different experiences. It comes from our own past experiences, the observations of others or as James himself says "A supply of ideas of the various movements that are ... left in the memory by experiences of their involuntary performance is thus the first prerequisite of the voluntary life." What James describes is that once you've made a decision in the past, the experience is stockpiled into your memory where it can be referenced the next time a decision must be made. And will be drawn from as a positive solution. But in his development of the design, James also struggled with being able to prove that free will is actually free or predetermined.

People can make judgments of regret, moral approval and moral disapproval, and if those are absent, then that means our will is predetermined. An example of this is "James says the problem is a very "personal" one and that he cannot personally conceive of the universe as a place where murder must happen." Essentially, if there were no regrets or judgments then all the bad stuff would not be considered bad, only as predetermined because there are no options of "good" and "bad". "The free will option is pragmatically truer because it better accommodates the judgments of regret and morality." Overall James uses this line of reasoning to prove that our will is indeed free: because of our morality codes, and the conceivable alternate universes where a decision has been regarded different than what we chose.

Biological Psychology and Addiction

Addiction is easier to understand when we consider that our biology programs us to pursue and repeat pleasurable experiences. However, we are not slaves to our biology. The unrestrained pursuit of pleasure represents a type of developmental immaturity as depicted in the classic story of Peter Pan. Therefore, psychological, socio-cultural, and spiritual factors influence whether we mature beyond our biological limitations. Until fairly recently, people with addictive disorders such as drug addiction were viewed as selfish, weak-willed folks. They seemed to behave badly without regard for themselves, or others. People with addictive problems will tell you, willpower is not enough. As we will soon see, our biological make-up explains why this is so.

Advancements in neurobiological research have changed the way we view addiction. Addiction is no longer limited to problematic substance use. We now know that certain activities can also be addictive (sex, gambling). This is because addiction is a problem of brain functioning. We become addicted to the chemicals our brain releases, not the substance or activity that causes this release. Our genetics greatly determine our brain functioning.

Although our biological make-up is a powerful influence, we are not slaves to our biology. In other words, our biology does not completely drive our behavior. People are certainly capable of choosing recovery over addiction. This makes addictive disorders very similar to other diseases and disorders. Many health problems require lifestyle changes to restore health. For instance, people with diabetes must regularly check blood sugar levels and count carbohydrates. People with heart disease must choose a healthier diet and an exercise program. Obviously, these folks did not choose to have these health challenges. However, but they most certainly do choose how to handle them. The same is true for people with addictions such as drug addiction.

The brain is the most dynamic and complex organ in our bodies. The brain's proper functioning ensures our very survival. When our brains functions well, we are constantly adapting to our environment (our surroundings). Ironically, it is the brain's ability to be so adaptive that contributes to the formation of addiction. Addiction causes changes to the brain in at least four fundamental ways:

1. Alcoholism causes changes to the brain's natural balance (homeostasis).

2. Alcoholism alters brain chemistry.

3. Alcoholism changes the brain's communication patterns.

4. Alcoholism causes changes to brain structures and their functioning.

Many of the symptoms we commonly associate with addiction are due to these changes in the brain:

1. Changes to the brain's cerebral cortex are associated with impaired decision-making, impulsivity, and compulsivity. These changes make it more likely that you will use drugs, or have difficulty resisting the urge to use.

2. The brain's reward system is responsible for drug-seeking, and cravings. From an evolutionary point of view, the brain's reward system ensures the survival of our species. We are more likely to repeat behaviors that are pleasurable (such as eating and sex). Unfortunately, addictions hijack this healthy function. People become addicted because they experience drug effects as pleasurable. This function of the brain makes relapse more likely even though people have good intentions to stop using.

3. The brain's amygdala is associated with memory and emotion. Certain "cues" are stored as positive or negative memories. For example, let's suppose someone always comes home and uses marijuana. Coming home, and the time (finishing work) now serve as cues to use because these cues are stored as a positive memory associated with marijuana. When someone tries to stop using, these cues serve as powerful motivators to use despite someone's best intentions to refrain from use. Likewise, people often describe drug addiction as a habit, and one that is difficult to break. When people attempt to discontinue an addiction like drug use, they can experience withdrawal. The memory of withdrawal is such an unpleasant experience that it serves as a powerful motivator (or cue) to resume the addictive behavior to avoid the unpleasant experience. Eventually, the relief from withdrawal (by resuming use) becomes pleasurable in and of itself. These relapse triggers are due to the amygdala's effect on memory and emotions.

4. Alcohol's effect on the brain's hypothalamus creates problems with stress regulation. People often use drugs to relieve stress. Since withdrawal from drug use is itself stressful, this creates a vicious cycle. Stopping drug use creates stress, but the use of drugs diminished the brain's ability to regulate stress.