EVALUATION OF A SELF-ENHANCEMENT PROGRAM FOR ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Sangeeta Singg and Kay C. Farquhar, Angelo State University
This study evaluated the effectiveness of a self-enhancement program using Personal Development course materials to promote a sense of self-esteem and responsibility in at-risk high school students with low self-esteem. Of the 60 randomly selected and assigned students, 56 completed the experiment (treatment group n = 26, control group n = 30). The treatment group received Personal Development program instruction and the control group did not receive this instruction until after the experiment was completed. Both groups were administered pretest and posttest Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Compared to the control group, treatment group showed significantly greater positive change from pretest to posttest in SEI scores. It was concluded that the Personal Development program was effective in helping at-risk students to improve their self-image resulting in improved self-esteem. It is assumed that self-esteem enhancement of at-risk students would enable them to reject self-defeating behaviors and develop success identity.
In recent years, self-esteem has become a controversial topic. Research has demonstrated that self-esteem does not cause academic achievement, instead academic performance influences subsequent self-esteem (Filozof et al., 1998). Furthermore, the correlation between the two variables has been reported from low to moderate (Baumeister, 1997; Moeller, 1994). However, ignoring the positive value of this construct will be just as detrimental as fostering a dangerous levels of inflated self-esteem in students according to some. Even Baumeister (1997), who suggested to Aforget about self-esteem@ after studying self-esteem for over two decades, recognizes that some students who may underestimate their abilities need boosting. Thus, self-esteem-enhancement programs might not be needed by most students, but those who are beaten down by adverse circumstances might benefit from them.
While the opinions about self-esteem are divided, there are those (Durbin, 1982; Frey & Carlock, 1989; Keat, 1974; Satir, 1988) who believe that self-esteem is the "single most important variable in an individual's life" (Keat, 1974, p. 47). It has been linked to a wide range of behavioral outcomes, especially less depression (Baumeister, 1997; Brockner, 1983). According to Reisman (1985), self-esteem is the bridge between one=s identity and what is important in life. It has as much to do with how one treats others as how one feels about oneself (Mecca, Smelser, & Vasconcellas, 1989).
People with high self-esteem bounce back after a failure and try again (Baumeister, 1997). However, many at-risk students who fail academically might not bounce back due to lower self-esteem and subsequently develop Afailure identity.@ This idea is in line with Glasser's Reality Therapy of which a primary goal is to help people achieve a "success identity" (Glasser, 1984). Those who possess a success identity display a positive sense of self-worth. In contrast, persons with failure identity perceive themselves as unloved, rejected, and unwanted. This idea of a success or failure identity would be helpful in understanding at-risk adolescents who have dropped out of school. If they are helped in perceiving themselves as competent and capable, their self-esteem will be enhanced than if they continue seeing themselves as unworthy and useless.
There is a nationwide effort to provide alternative education to students who have dropped out of school and have not succeeded in a traditional school. Such a school, referred to in this article as the XYZ school was established in 1988 in a southwestern city of America with about 100,000 population. XYZ school is designed to assist students in obtaining their high school diploma after they have not been successful in a traditional high school. It is a special school for special young persons with special needs. Students entering XYZ school are told that they will be accepted regardless of their problems. However, they must be willing to work on and try to change problem behaviors that have kept them from succeeding previously. At XYZ school, new friendships are encouraged to foster positive peer relationships. One of the primary aims of this school is to focus on building students= positive self-image.
Advanced Social Problems (ASP), a course at XYZ school, is designed to promote a sense of self-esteem and social and personal responsibility in at-risk high school students. This course uses the materials developed by Phillips (1991) for at-risk students in California. The Personal Development program by Phillips specifically targets those attitudes and behaviors which result in negative self-image and subsequent low self-esteem in at-risk students.
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Personal Development program in improving self-esteem of at-risk students. The independent variable of the study was the Personal Development program instruction with two levels: Personal Development instruction (treatment) and no Personal Development instruction (control). The dependent variable was self-esteem measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) (Coopersmith, 1981). We hypothesized that the treatment group would show a significantly greater positive pretest to posttest SEI mean change score than the control group.
Method
Participants. Of the 110 students enrolled during the Fall of 1994 (age: 16-21 years, M = 18) at XYZ school, 60 (women = 59%) were randomly selected and assigned to a treatment or control group. Of these, 56 (93%) completed the experiment (2 withdrew from school and 2 did not complete the posttest). The treatment group (n = 26, women = 18) received Personal Development instruction and the control group (n = 30, women = 15) did not receive this instruction until after the experiment was completed.
The ethnic background of the participants coincided closely with the total population of students at XYZ school. The sample included 51% Caucasian, 47% Hispanic, 1% Asian-American, and 1% African-American students. Other characteristics of the sample were 51% employed, 28% receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children, 35% pregnant or with 1-2 children, 68% reported using drugs and/or alcohol, and 68% failed one or more grades at the secondary level.
Materials The socio-demographic information was obtained from the student questionnaire and application, which are used by the Student Assistance Coordinator during the initial interview with the students and their parents/guardians at XYZ school. Other instruments used were the Informed Consent Form and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI)BAdult Form to measure self-esteem, and Personal Development program (Phillips, 1991) used in Advanced Social Problems class.
The SEI was constructed with the help of a long-term research program to assess evaluative attitudes toward the self in social (peers), academic (school), and home (parental) contexts (Coopersmith, 1981). Based on the SEI, self-esteem is defined as an overall perception of self-worth expressed in one=s attitudes toward the self. The SEI is considered a reliable and valid measure of global self-esteem, which is well suited for the academic setting. The Adult Form contains 25 items (maximum score = 100) adapted from the School Short Form and is used with persons ages 16 and above. Generally favorable or generally unfavorable statements about the person are presented to be selected as Alike me@ or Aunlike me.@ As a well-established instrument, its reliability, stability, and construct validity are well-supported by research (Anatasi, 1988).
The Personal Development program is a one semester course consisting of five units, last of which is a summary unit using application of information from other units in solving personal problems (Phillips, 1991). It was designed to use with at-risk high school students to enhance personal skills. These five units (building a positive self-image, communicating effectively, setting and achieving goals, accepting responsibility, and solving problems) are designed to be taught separately or as interconnected topics. At XYZ school, the five units are taught as one course focused on at-risk studnets= self-enhancement from different angles. According to Phillips, the program is written in a scripted way so that any interested teacher who is unfamiliar with the course Acould quickly review a lesson and then teach it very capably@ (P. 4). No materials other than fully laid out teaching aids in the program binder and an interested teacher are needed to teach the course.
Procedure. All students who volunteered to participate in the experiment signed the Informed Consent Form and completed SEI pretest. Then the treatment group received Personal Development instruction.
The Personal Development instruction was provided by the XYZ school student services coordinator who is also school=s counselor. She met with the treatment group students individually and in groups. The program continued for five months. Each student received a minimum of ten individual sessions in which a variety of problems, such as interpersonal problems, academic difficulties, drug and/or family problems were discussed. Counseling was provided according to the reality therapy principles. Students kept daily journals, made class presentations, completed homework assignments, and participated in small and large group discussions. The group sessions involved establishing support system, practicing interpersonal communication skills, developing mutual respect, discussing short-term and long-term goals, learning stress management, and learning to cope with a variety of day-to-day living problems. The group as a whole met once a week for five months (20 sessions).
The control group waited to receive the Personal Development instruction until after the experiment was completed. After the Personal Development instruction for the treatment group was concluded, both groups were administered the SEI again as a posttest. All participants who completed the Personal Development instruction received a half-hour semester credit.
Results
To check the homogeneity of variance between two groups prior to Personal Development instruction, the pretest SEI scores were compared with a t-test. The nonsignificant results indicated that the treatment and control groups did not differ significantly in their self-esteem mean scores prior to the instruction (t = .44, df = 54, p = .66). Sex difference was also analyzed with the help of t-test. Men (M = 5.57, SD = 9.40) and women (M = 9.09, SD = 7.16) did not differ significantly with regard to their SEI mean change scores, t = -1.5, df = 54, p = .12. Thus, sex was ruled out as an intervening variable.
The pretest SEI mean score for the entire sample was 56.86 (SD = 18.13). The pretest, posttest, and change SEI mean scores for the control group were 57.87 (SD = 18.10), 60.67 (SD = 17.01), and 3.07 (SD = 5.82) respectively. For the treatment group, the pretest, posttest, and change SEI mean scores were 55.69 (SD = 18.45), 68.70 (SD = 19.34), and 13.08 (SD = 7.29) respectively. A two-sample t-test was used to analyze the difference between two groups with regard to their SEI mean change scores. As expected, the treatment group showed a significantly greater mean change score than the control group (t = 5.71, df = 54, p < .0001). Thus, the hypothesis of the present study was supported by the data.
Discussion
The statistical results of the present experiment confirmed that the Personal Development instruction was effective in building the positive self-image of at-risk high school students. About three decades ago, Nimnicht, MacAfee, and Meir (1969) developed the idea of a responsive environment as a means of building self-esteem. Necessary conditions for a responsive environment are (1) allowing students free exploration of several activities; (2) giving the students immediate feedback on the consequences of their behaviors; (3) self-paced learning; and (4) one-on-one guidance from the teacher. These conditions were facilitated while providing the Personal Development program to the students in the present study.
During adolescence, one develops a heightened concern about one's self and identity. Rosenberg (1979) gave three major reasons for heightened concern about self-concept at this age: (1) need to make decisions about career, marriage, religion, and family; (2) rapid physical changes; and (3) confusion due to status ambiguity. Answers to the questions "Who am I?" and "Where am I going?" are not easily found during this stage of development. The Personal Development program provided an environment to explore these issues in individual and group settings.
Adolescence also poses problems with the enormous pressures within self and from the peer group to be sexually active (Wolf, 1986). Pressures from peers, relationships, increased academic demands, and family problems, such as parental divorce can also be stressful, especially if they come all at once. These stressors could erode one=s self-esteem if coping methods are ineffective. A majority of at-risk students at the XYZ school were facing such pressures. The fifth unit (solving problems) of the Personal Development program was specifically designed to help integrate the learning from the other four units and teach students skills to cope with their personal problems.
Even though one=s self-concept starts to form early in life, the negative effect of low self-esteem may not be seen until adolescence (Savin-Williams & Demo, 1983). One=s peers have a significant influence at this stage. Social skills are acquired via peer interactions and these interactions play a major role in development of one=s sense of self-worth (Berndt, 1982; Reisman, 1985). Therefore, peer relations and friendships were stressed in the Personal Development instruction in the present study.
Many experts contend that low self-esteem is related to a variety of behavioral and health problems, the most destructive being the drug and alcohol use (Emery, McDermott, Holcomb, & Marty, 1993; Filozof et al., 1998). In the present study, 68% of the students reported using drugs and/or alcohol. The president of the National Council for Self-Esteem, Gail Dusa (cited in Phillips, 1991) said in the Self-Esteem Newsletter:
Self-esteem should be made part of the curriculum, both directly and indirectly. Teachers of young children should attend to self-esteem primarily in the way they interact with students, while high school students can be directly taught tools to handle the stumbling blocks of life. (p. 2)
In response to some educators= view that school=s focus should be improving curriculum and teaching techniques instead of building students= self-esteem, Phillips (1991) gives an analogy of a professional painter who first prepares the wood in order to receive the paint. Similarly, ASome students, just like some wood, require considerable preparation to compensate for previous damage@ (p. 3). By learning more positive behaviors and attitudes, students can have better interpersonal relationships, achieve greater sense of personal control, and subsequently feel better about themselves.
Another analogy is given by Frey and Carlock (1989) comparing building of self-esteem to the lesson of The Wizard of Oz story. All of the characters of this story discovered after searching for various objects that they already had what they wanted. But they needed others= help to gain this self-awareness. At-risk students also need such facilitation, which would help them recognize their strengths and focus on self-enhancing behaviors. Of the 56 at-risk students who participated in the present experiment, 42 (75%) graduated. So the proof is in the pudding.
The primary limitation of the present study was possible confounding by a variety of intervening variables that were not controlled. The possible intervening variables could be living situations; which parents are at home; whether one or both parents are employed; whether the student is employed and how many hours he/she works; whether the student had taken honors classes, regular classes, below grade level, or been in Special Education; whether the student is a pregnant or parenting teen; whether the student has any illnesses or health problems or has been involved in any major accidents; whether the student is on welfare; whether the student has experienced a major loss through death or divorce; whether the student has had a problem with drugs or alcohol and has ever been in a drug/alcohol treatment center; whether a student has been mentally, physically, or sexually abused; and whether the student has been diagnosed or treated for depression or other related illness. Hopefully, the random selection and assignment of the participants reduced the risk of these uncontrolled variables.
Conclusions and Practical Applications
The results of the present study indicated that the Personal Development program has proven to be an excellent way for at-risk high school students to improve how they feel about themselves. This program targets attitudes and behaviors which result in adjustment problems leading to dropping out of school. The school dropout rate is a serious problem in our society. Without high school education it is difficult for young adults to seek resources for self-support. At-risk students who feel good about themselves are more likely to experience academic success and stay in school. Therefore, it is assumed that the self-enhancement program, such as Personal Development helps these students understand that having a positive outlook makes them stronger. Such program also helps them understand the relationship between their self-image and behavior.
Further, the results of the present study suggest that at-risk high school students completing Personal Development program learn how to build their self-esteem by setting meaningful goals, making good choices which result in the achieving of these goals, empowering themselves by accepting responsibility for the decisions they make and learning to communicate effectively with others. The assumption is that the positive self-image is reflected in more optimistic and constructive behavior patterns, which are more likely to result in success identity. Instilling the success identity in at-risk students would enhance the chances for academic and occupational success leading to the development of a successful adult. Thus, at least for this population, enhancement of self-esteem might be not only a desirable goal, but also a necessary goal for our schools.
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