USING LEARNING THEORY TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL COMPUTER PRESENTATIONS

USING LEARNING THEORY TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL COMPUTER PRESENTATIONS

Dorothy Leflore and Karen Smith-Gratto, North Carolina A&T State University

Introduction

More instructors are using programs such as "Powerpoint" or "Corel Presentations" to create visuals to accompany lectures. These presentations could do more to enhance student understanding and learning if we take a conscious view of how the screen is designed. We have noticed that instructors using presentation software use them in much the same manner that they used overhead transparencies. The tendency is to create screens full of text in an attempt to provide students with help in the learning process. While the intentions are well-meaning, little thought is given to the actual impact on student perception and learning. Presentation software, if used wisely, can broaden students' experience and enhance learning. The multimedia capabilities of presentation software provides pitfalls as well as opportunities. To make the wisest use of computer presentations careful thought needs to be given to how people learn rather than how the software works. Often faculty learn how to use presentation software from technicians rather than other educators. This leads to more attention being paid to the capabilities of the software to present material rather than how to present the material in an educationally sound manner. In order to do this for ourselves, we must consider how students learn rather than how the software works.

It is important to consider how learning theory may inform our design choices. Since they are most often used accompanying lectures, we are working from a perspective that while it does not preclude constructivist approaches, makes them more difficult. In considering what learning theories might contribute to the process we will address aspects from gestalt, cognitive, and constructivist theories that can provide a framework for screen design that has theoretical underpinnings.

Gestalt Theory

First to consider is gestalt theory. We have two reasons for this: 1) Gestaltists are the precursors to modern cognitive theory, and 2) Gestaltists addressed perception. Learning from a Gestaltist point of view involves the formation of memory traces. According to Koffka (1935) information follows the laws of Perception and the tendency is to organize and simplify the information contained in the memory trace. This position on learning evolved from the way Gestaltists viewed perception and how individuals organized what was perceived.

How the learner perceives what is presented is important for how they will interpret what is presented. Individuals organize visual fields into visual patterns. These are grouped according to the Gestalt Laws of Perception (Kohler, 1947; & Koffka, 1935). These principles can be used to inform the design of printed materials (Moore & Fitz, 1993). We content that these principles can also be used to improve the instructional quality of instructional computer presentations. The Laws of Perception that will be discussed here are: figure-ground relationships; proximity: similarity; and simplicity.

Figure-ground relationships indicate that the background should be very distinct from the foreground. This principle is often violated. With the built-in backgrounds in presentation software, the danger is the pairing of a patterned background with text that fades into parts of the background because of a similarity in color. Refer to Figure 1 to see the difference between poor figure-ground contrast (the text is highlighted by a box) and good figure-ground contrast as seen by the black text. This example is drawn from presentations we have seen which use a sky background and blue text. When we consider that the purpose of instructional presentations is to provide students with visuals to help them remember, understand, and conceptualize the information presented, we must make sure that the presentation does not detract from this goal. Presentations that cause students to spend time deciphering what is presented in the visual will defeat the purpose. Figure-ground relationships should be used to inform the text font, size and color. The text should be as distinct from the background as we can make it. When a learner has to work to separate text from the background, it hinders the learner's ability to understand and learn. Besides figure-ground relationships, we need to consider the law of proximity.

Simply put, objects placed close together will be grouped together by the learner. When more than one graphic is used on a frame, the labels used to identify each graphic should be placed carefully so that there is no confusion about which object is which. In addition, when more than one concept is presented using text, additional space should be provided between the concepts. This cues the learner both verbally and visually. Another law of perception that can aid our screen design is the law of similarity.

The reconstruction of information can be aided by directing attention to specific items in a visual display (Kohler, 1947). This is quite easy with computer presentations. Animated text, using a different color font for key words or phrases, and flashing text can direct learner attention. This can also be used to animate graphics or parts of graphics to focus student attention on processes. When all text is the same or when a process is not animated, it is more difficult for students' to focus on the key features. The final aspect of Gestalt theory we will examine to inform our presentation's screen design is simplicity.

Individuals will simplify what they perceive based upon their previous experience and current expectations (Kohler, 1947; & Koffka, 1935). According to this view, complex graphics will be simplified by the viewer. Since the viewer will simplify graphics, it would be useful to start with a simple graphic that shows the important elements students should attend to rather than a labeled photograph or complex graphic. Start with the basic elements and increase the complexity in subsequent screens. In this manner a build-up to the complex graphic or photographic representation occurs. For example, we can use a basic drawing of an animal cell and label the basic parts. In the next frame of the presentation, we can add more of the cell's features. Once we have built up to all of the parts of the cell using, simplified graphics, we can introduce a photograph for students to analyze. In this way experience for the learner is built and the expectation of complexity increases. Also, when using visuals, look at them with a critical eye. Any unnecessary visual information should be removed so that the visual does not contain elements that will distract the learners from the desired focus. Besides the Laws of Perception, Gestalt theory states that learners will form a holistic view of information.

We can provide overviews at various times within a presentation to help students develop a holistic view that is compatible with the content. We may start instruction with a graphic organizer, a frame (information organized in table form), or an outline that provides an overview of the information to be presented during the lecture. Another way we can approach the development of an overview is to build up a series of Gestalts. This can be done by presenting a series of computer screens in the presentation, which give small overviews of a concept or connected concepts to create an overall view or Gestalt.

Cognitive Theory

Gestalt theory is not the only theory that can aid our instructional presentation design. Use of a variety of concepts found in cognitive theory can also inform our screen design. Among those addressed are: cognitive maps; concept development; relating previous knowledge to new knowledge; gaining student attention; and "deep processing."

The first aspect of cognitive theory considered is cognitive mapping. Cognitive maps are also called "webs" and "graphic organizers." Cognitive maps provide a visual referent for relationships between elements or between hierarchies of related elements (Reiber, 1994). Therefore, including outlines (which we often do anyway) is supported by theory. In addition, use of graphic organizers which use geometric shapes and lines with text can provide a pictorial view of how concepts are related. The organizers make the overall concept easier for the student to understand (For an example, refer to Figure 2). Use of text and graphics in this manner is not only supported by cognitive theory but gestalt theory as well.

Another area of cognitive theory that can strengthen instructional presentations is concept development as put forth by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1956 ). In their view, concept attainment is an interactive process through which individuals create hypotheses until they have defined the concept. One way of doing this is to provide examples and non-examples to illustrate the characteristics of the concept. This can be quite nicely done by using the capabilities of the computer. Nelson and Pan (1995) suggested using the concept attainment model in elementary school science. They used "Hypercard" to present examples and non-examples one at a time while students developed some hypotheses to define the concept. The hypotheses would be changed as new examples and non-examples are provided. This technique is appropriate at any level of education. The technique of having the students develop definitions provides active engagement for students and can be facilitated using presentation software.

An aspect of cognitive theory that applies to the design of computer presentations comes from Gagne' s Instructional Events (1985). Graphics and animation can be used to gain the learner's attention which is one of the instructional events. Animated text is quite easy to create when using many kinds of presentation software and allows for gaining attention. Two effective ways of using this capability to enhance student attention are considered here. One way is to have the animated text appear on the screen one concept at a time. The second way is to have only key points animate during the presentation. Normally, graphics should forward the instruction, however, sometimes adding a graphic related to the instruction but does not forward the instruction can add visual interest to a frame. If most of the presentation has been text, the graphic can provide a temporary relief from text and regain student attention. While presentation software allows the easy use of attention-getting devices, overuse of these devices would defeat the instructional purpose.

Constructivist Theory

Constructivist theory emphasizes that the learner constructs meaning and organizes learning in his/her unique way (Van Glaserfeld, 1989). While the individual's understanding and interpretation of experiences is unique, it can be negotiated through social interaction. Social interaction allows for and helps create mediated interpretations of experiences and much learning depends upon communication (Vygotsky, 1981). Constructivists posit that learners need to be involved with solving problems in "real world" contexts. Often this involves group problem-solving activities.

Instructional presentations can help us provide experiences that can help students construct the understanding of a concept. This can be done by using video or animation examples that provide a demonstration simulation of an event or process. For example when introducing students to different types of chemical bonding, we can use animations so that they can visually experience what happens during bonding. Figure 3 provides a static view of the first screen in an animation that shows ionic bonding. One key to this screen is the question that asks students to observe and be able to explain what happens. As the animation begins, the atom on the left (Na) loses the electron in the outer shell. This electron moves to the outer shell of the electron on the right (Cl). At this point the animation stops and students are asked to describe what they saw and why they think this happened. After the discussion on what happened, students are asked to predict what will happen next. The animation is then continued to show how the two electrons come together and further discussion is conducted. Notice that the presentation software is not being used to conduct a lecture, but to create an experience for students that requires them to express how they are constructing the concept of ionic bonding. Related to but different from helping students construct meaning is "real-world" problem-solving.

While the bulk of an instructional presentation may use other methods, problem-solving activities based in "real world" contexts can be included as a part of the presentation. This can be something as simple as rewriting instructional objectives in an education course or as complex as analyzing environmental problems in an ecology course. In both cases, students may be asked to draw upon information from the first part of the lecture and/or information obtained through previous lectures and work. A problem can be assigned in small parts during the presentation or as a total problem at the end of the presentation. In addition, the complexity of the problem may require that students extend the process beyond the class time. The problem-solving can be assigned as an activity for individuals or more appropriately within the constructivist paradigm to groups.

Group activities related to the presentation or as a part of the presentation are easily included either as "real-world" problems or as activities that help students negotiate meaning from the presentation. Small groups of students can discuss aspects of the presentation and then report on their discussion to the whole class. At that point the instructor can facilitate the discussion so that the negotiated meaning within the class falls within the parameters of accepted meaning within the content area. As stated above, a complex "real-world" problem can be introduced to the groups for their discussion. In this manner a variety of solutions and meanings are developed. The different solutions and meanings can then be discussed by the whole class and one solution chosen and tested. If the "real-world" problem is less complex, each group can provide a solution for further discussion within the class. After the discussions, the presentation could continue with solutions arrived at by other groups or by experts in the field and the differences and similarities between the student derived meanings and the meanings within the field explored. This type of activity can help students clarify their own understanding and guide them toward the meanings arrived at by experts.

Conclusion

Most faculty have learned to use computers and presentation software. It is now time to move toward wiser use of computer presentations to broaden student experience and enhance student learning. In order for this to happen, we need to consider how learning theories can help us design better presentations. These presentations may differ from our usual lecture mode because aspects of the learning theories discussed here require different approaches. Learning theory coupled with multimedia capabilities can bring a variety of activities into the classroom that can broaden and enhance students' knowledge. As we prepare presentations for our classes we should consider which learning theory or theories would give our students the best opportunity for learning.

References

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Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & sons, Inc.

Gagne', R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning. (4th ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. (5^th ed.) London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Kohler, W. (1947). Gestalt psychology: An introduction to new concepts in modern psychology. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation.

Moore, P. & Fitz, C. (1993). Gestalt Theory and Instructional Design. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 23(2), 137-157.

Nelson, M., & Pan, A.C. (1995). Concept attainment model: A viable component for elementary science curriculum. Technology and Teacher Education Annual, 1995. Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

Reiber, L.P. (1994). Computers, graphics, & learning. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. Van Glaserfeld, E. (1989). Cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. Synthese, 80, 121-140.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology. Armonk, NY: Sharpe.

Figure 1. Poor and good figure-ground contrast from gestalt theory

Figure 2. A graphic organizer or web as an example from cognitive theory

Figure 3. First frame of an animation that incorporates constructivist theory