Native Americans of the Nebraska Region
This summary of tribal characteristics, locations, and histories covers those peoples whose territory was within the borders of the Territory of Nebraska as established on May 30th, 1854; this territory contained all the land from the Missouri River on the east to the Rocky Mountains on the west, and from the southern border (the 49th parallel) of the British Possesions (now Canada) in the north to the 40th parallel (which forms the southern border of today's Nebraska) in the south.
The Indian Tribes of the Northern Plains.
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The Dakota (or Dacotah.)
--These people are usually called the Sioux--though this was/is a name given by the Ojibway/Chippewa, meaning "snake. The people as a whole refer to themselves as Dakota/Nakota/Lakota, meaning "allies." (See below.)
There is a slight dialectical difference between the Dakota/Sioux divisions. The western Dakota or Tetons (the groups west of the Missouri River) refer to themselves as "Lakota"; across the river, the Sisseton, both groups of Santees, and the Spirit Lakers (those in present-day central and southern Minnesota) call themselves the "Dakota"; and the Yankton and Yanktonai (the northern bands east of the Missouri River, whose territory stretched to just east of that river) use the word "Nakota", by replacing the Teton "l's" with "n's".
The people refer to those whose language they can understand as "white talkers;" those they cannot are "red talkers."
7 Major Tribal Groups
Blewakantonwan, or Spirit Lakers. (Probably original gen)
Sinsintonwan, or Sissetons.
Wahpekutetonwan, or Santees (I).
Wahpetonwan, or Santees (II).
Ihanktonwan, or Yanktons.
Ihantonwanna, or Yanktonnan/Yanktonai.
Tintatonwan, or Tetons. ***This group, the western Dakota, is further divided into seven large bands, listed in order of size/precedence in council:
The Tetons, or Lakota.
1. The Oglala, or Oglala, translated as "cast on own."
2. The Minikanyewozupi, or Minneconjou, translated as "plant near water."
3. The Sicangu, or Brule', translated as "burned thighs."
4. The Oohenonpa, or Two Kettle, translated as "boil twice."
5. The Itazipco, or Sans Arc, translated as "no bow."
6. The Sihasapa, or Blackfeet (Dakota), translated as "black foot."
7. The Hunkpapa, or Hunkpapa, translated as "end of horn."
Migration:
The Dakota people migrated from the upper Great Lakes region. The Spirit Lakers most likely the original group, others descending from it before leaving the woodlands. The Dakota were as far west as the North Platte River by the 1830's. The Assiniboine, an upper Missouri River tribe, is closely related; but the two peoples split long before emigration.
Abiding Power / Creation Force:
The Dakota refer to the great Power (*not an individual*) as Wakan Tanka (translated as "the Great Mystery"; the term for grandfather, "tunkashila", is also used.) The most revered physical manifestation of this power is White Buffalo Woman, who is said to have brought the Dakota the medicine pipe or "chanunpa" and who set down the customs of their culture. Their most important ceremony is the Sun Dance. (Terms as in Lakota dialect.)
Relations with Other Tribes.
The Dakota/Sioux were on good terms with the Cheyenne and the Arapaho. Their most ancient enemy were the Crow, and they also had many conflicts with the Pawnee. The Arikara, a relation of the Pawnee, and the Omaha and Ponca--all much smaller groups during the 19th century--were subject to Dakota raids as well.
***It should be noted that the term "allies" in regard to Indian relations did not have the same connotation is does for Euro-Americans. If the Dakota has a conflict with another tribe, they would not usually ask another tribe to join them in a raid or in battle; if it was a major conflict, another tribe might be sent a messenger to alert them that the Dakota were going to war, but the tribe was in no way required to join in. When emigration began, tribal territories were in flux, and so the Cheyenne would sometimes be camped along with bands of Dakota: If this was the case, the groups would more or less act as one.***
First Official Treaty.
(Eastern Dakota [i.e. excludes Tetons])
December 30, 1816. Lands ceded to French, British and Spanish recognized by United States. First actual cessions of lands to U.S. occurred on February 24, 1831.
(Western Dakota or Tetons.)
September 17, 1851. The famous (first) Fort Laramie treaty. This was probably the
largest gathering of Indians ever in the United States. Many promises were made to the tribes represented (Dakota, Crow, Shoshone, and many miscellaneous groups) but the treaty was never ratified in Congress. Those some annuities were paid, and some goods delivered, the Grattan Fight of 1854 (initiated by the actions of Lieutenant Grattan himself) closed most of the doors the conference opened.
Hunting the Buffalo, (or Tatanka.)
***Note: The word “tribe” was used to denote a larger section of a linguistic [language] group. These
larger sections were split into smaller groups (based mainly on dialects, that is, variants of the language), then into bands, and finally into sub-bands or tiospaye (the extended family unit, sometimes referred to historically as the "camp") which were usually named for a prominent leader or chief, or for a long-standing descriptive phrase. The Dakota Indians were part of the Siouan language group, but Dakota Indians referred to themselves as being either Lakota (for tribes west of the Missouri River) or Nakota (for the Yankton and Yanktonai, the northernmost band whose territory stretched to just east of the Missouri) or Dakota (the remaining groups east of the Missouri River.) A good example of the sectionalization is this: The Wounded Knee massacre of 1890 resulted in the death of many Minneconjou (or Minikanzus) Dakotas. This band was a member of the larger Teton dialect division of the Sioux language, of which there were seven bands (such as the Oglala, the Brule, etc.) The main band that was decimated was that led by Big Foot, who, though old and sick at the time, was killed along with about 300 others from varying bands.
Therefore, the group is described in its parts as thus:
Dakotas/Sioux (of the Siouan linguistic group—a general term.)
Lakotas (what the Dakota called themselves if they lived west of the Missouri River.)
Tetons (they spoke the Teton dialect.)
Minniconjou/Minikanzus band (one of the seven sections of the Teton dialect group.)
Big Foot’s Tiospaye (again, sometimes called the "camp.") (The tiospaye; here, named after a leader)
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The preparation for the buffalo hunt began in council, when the elders decided in which direction the tribe would seek for the herds, and the amount of time delegated for the hunt. The next order of business was to select four marshals ( akcita ) who would have all but complete control over the camp. The number four was sacred to the Dakota, as can be seen in the importance of the four directions, and the four elements from which all things came: Skan (the sky) Maka (the earth) Wi (the sun) and Inyan (rock.) These marshals were chosen by the council, and during discussions all could speak their mind on the worthiness of the candidates. Typically, young men were chosen, and these could make attempts to convince members of the council that they should be a marshal. After the four were chosen, they were required to accept their positions by ceremony, were given the insignia of the akcita: : A feathered banner, a scalp shirt and, most importantly, a black stripe of paint down the right cheek. This stripe was to be worn at all times during the “tenure” of the marshal.
The marshals then instructed the camp to prepare to move, or to “break” camp. The women did the vast majority of the preparations, and the marshals had authority to admonish any who did not did not fulfill their duty. The men checked their weapons and readied all for the hunt. During these preparations, holy men/shamans ( wikan wicasa ) would seek visions relating to the hunt; and if the Spirit gave them any instructions, they were told to the council and camp, and followed exactly. When all was ready, the four marshals would lead the camp on, and scouts were dispatched to find the exact location of the herd, if there was one to be found.
If tatanka were discovered, the scouts—who were always on the lookout for enemies as well--would return and wave a robe in a designated manner, depending on the number seen. An elder was chosen to question the scout officially after he entered the camp; and the scout was to “swear” that he had seen buffalo, and was at task to describe exactly where, how many, the terrain of the area, and the outlook from which he had seen them. The marshals would then make the final plans, and the men readied themselves for the next morning when the chase would at last be engaged.
After the scouts led the men to the herd, with the women close behind, the exact spot to launch the assault was chosen. The men then rode straight at the herd, choosing their targets. Each buffalo shot had to be hit mortally before the hunter was to move on, and the hunt was finished only when all the buffalo were killed, the rest of the herd had broken away, or the hunters were simply exhausted. The hunters then claimed their kills; and any dispute over ownership was taken care of by the marshals, who would decide by examining the arrow (arrows were to be made unique to each hunter.) If ownership was not disputed, the women immediately came onto the field and began skinning the animals, being quick to remove the livers, which would be eaten (sometimes dipped in the gall of the buffalo) by the men, who believed doing such would empower them with strength and/or courage. One buffalo would be chosen by a wakan wicasa to become a sacrifice to the Great Mystery or Great Spirit ( Wakan Tanka ) and only the skin of the animal would be removed; the carcass was left where it fell. If a white buffalo was spotted—for the herd was thoroughly examined before the hunt began—all hunters would pursue it as its hide was of great value and power; but the carcass of such an animal was never butchered, and was always left for Wakan Tanka.
Moons (or Months).
Moon of Frost in the Tipi.---------------------------------------January.
Moon of the Dark Red Calves.----------------------------------February.
Moon of the Snowblind.-------------------------------------------March.
Moon of the Red Grass Appearing.---------------------------------April.
Moon When the Ponies Shed.----------------------------------------May.
Moon of Making Fat.------------------------------------------------June.
Moon When the Cherries Are Ripe.----------------------------------July.
Moon When the Cherries Turn Black.-----------------------------August.
Moon When the Calves Grow Hair.----------------------------September.
Moon of the Changing Season.-----------------------------------October.
Moon of the Falling Leaves.-----------------------------------November.
Moon of the Popping Trees.------------------------------------December
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The Pawnee.
The Pawnee refer themselves by the same name, though spelled Pa-ni. (Name most likely derived from the Caddoan language word pa-ri-ki, meaning, "horn", in reference to a single large scalp lock in which the hair was once worn. The Pawnee are a semi-nomadic people, living in large, circular earthen lodges, which they "abandon" twice during the year for a summer and winter buffalo hunt. Vegetable are planted in the spring, and harvested after the return from the summer hunt. They are called pa-la-ni by the Dakota/Sioux.
The sign the Pawnee use for themselves: The right hand is raised, palm outward, at just above shoulder level, with the index and middle fingers extended upward (all other closed.) The hand is then bent forward at the writs until the fingers point forward. The sign mimics the pointed ears of the wolf.
The Pawnee Proper, in Order of Importance in Council (names are based on village order, west to east.)
1. The Chau-i, or Grand, translated as "in the middle."
2. The Kit-ke-hahk-i, or Republican, translated as "on a hill."
3. The Pita-hau-erat, or Tapaje, translated as "down the stream."
The Skidis or Skiris (incorporated into the Pawnee Proper [mid-1700's?], becoming the most influential and most well known band.)
1. The Skidi, (or Skiri), or Wolf Pawnee or Pawnee Loups.
Other Members of the Caddoan Language Group:
(The Pawnee refer to related tribes in the south--not the Arikara- -as Kiri-kur'uks, or "bear's eyes." Reason is unknown.)
-The Arikara, or Aricaree / Ree (close relationship to the Skidi)
--(The peoples listed below are all south of the Pawnee--)
--The Wichitas or Pawnee Picts (close relationship to the Pawnee Proper)
--The Caddos
--The Huecos, or Wacos
--The Keechies
--The Tonkaways and Lipans
Migration.
It is a common belief that the Pawnee migrated from the Southwestern area of what is now the United States: The Pawnee Proper (and some number of allied tribes, listed above) first, the Skidi and the Arikara later.
Abiding Power / Creation Force:
The Pawnee pray to, and refer to their creator as Ti-ra-wa. The Morning Star is the greatest physical manifestation of this Power, and the Pawnee were know to have sacrificed a single human to the Star on some occasions (a virgin female--it is debated whether this was a captive or a woman from the tribe "honored" by selection.)
Along with the Morning Star, the Pawnee greatly revered corn; not only was it a major food source, its planting, growth, and harvest were all sacred events. Prayers to" Mother Corn" were a common part of Pawnee life.
First Official Treaty.
April 12, 1834. The Pawnee (for the first time seen as a confederated people--see four bands on previous page) cede all lands south of the Platte River in Nebraska.
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The Crow., or Absaroka.
--The Crow refer to themselves as Apsaruke ,the name of a now unknown fork-tailed Plains bird. In the Hidatsa language the word seems to mean "large beaked bird.") They are part of the Siouan language group.
The Crow Nation Consisted of Two Large Bands (random order.)
-- The Minesepere, or River Crow, (Eastern) translated as "dung on the river banks."
-- The Mountain Crow. (Western) Divided into two sub-bands:
- The Acaraho, translated as the "main body" or "where the many lodges are."
- The Erarapio, translated as the "kicked in their bellies."
--A smaller upper plains tribe, the Hidatsa, is closely related. The territory of the Mountain Crow was bordered on the west by two Mountain/Plateau tribes: The Nez Perce or "Pierced Noses" and the Shoshone or "Bad Lodges."
Below are the thirteen matrilineal clans of the Crow, some of which were grouped together:
1. The acirari'o, translated as "newly made lodges."
The acitisi'te, translated as "thick lodge."
2. The aci'oce, translated as "sore lip lodge."
The u'wutace, translated as "greasy inside the mouth."
3. The u'sawatsia, translated as "without shooting they bring game."
The xu'xkaraxtse, translated as "tied in a knot."
The acpe'nuce, translated as "filth eating lodge."
4. The erarapi'o, translated as "kicked in the bellies."
The ackya'pkawia, translated as "bad way honors."
5. The birikyo'oce, translated as "whistling water."
The acxatse', translated as "streaked lodge."
6.**Names may denote tribes already mentioned--unknown.
The ackya'mne, translated as "Piegan lodge."
The acbatcu'a. translated as "treacherous lodge."
Migration.
According to their oldest stories, the originally came from a region of many lakes, most likely the upper Great Lakes regions, possibly around Lake Winnipeg. They may also have had roots in northern Wisconsin. Crow tradition accounts for the initial move because of a severe drought that caused buffalo and other game to leave. Scouts were sent in four directions, only those sent west being successful. The ancestral group moved to near the confluence of the Knife and Missouri rivers. Then, a break between two major chiefs in the 1600's: One saw a vision that told him to stay near the river and establish a village, the other being told to head toward the mountains to the west. A 100 year journey resulted, taking the group to the Great Salt Lake, down into northern Texas, east perhaps as far as Arkansas, and then north/northwest back into prairie country.
The Crow were hit severely by the smallpox epidemics of the mid to late 1840's, reducing their numbers to around 2,000, perhaps a fourth of their initial size.
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Crow refer to the great power as either First Maker or The One Above ( "ba-kukure)", and also strongly revere the Sun ("a'xace.")
Their most important ceremony (like numerous other Plains tribes) was the Sun Dance.
First Official Treaty.
September 17, 1851. The (first) Fort Laramie treaty. This treaty was never recognized by Congress. The first cessions of lands to the U.S., along with the establishment of the Crow Reservation, occurred on August 12, 1868.
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The Omaha. (Name translated as "against the current" or "upstream.")
(The Omaha, Ponca, Osage, Kansa and Quapaw tribes claim a common relationship; only the former two will be described here, as the Osage and Quapaw are not indigenous to the Northern Plains, and the Kansa, though having ceded some lands in the area in 1825, are mainly a southern Plains people.
The language of the Omaha was Siouan, of a unique dialect called Dehiga.)
The Tribe had Two Major Divisions, Each With Its Respective Gens, (some of which were further divided into sub-gens [not listed]):
--The Hongashenu, of "the Earth people."--Responsibility of rites relating to tribal welfare (hunting, warring, peace)
1. We'zhinshte Gens
2. Inke'cabe Gens
3. Honga Gens
4. Tha'tada Gens
5. Kon'ce Gens
--The Inshtacunda, or "the Sky people."--Responsibility of supernatural rites, and their connection to all living things.
1. Monthinkagaxe Gens
2. Tecin'de Gens
3. Tapa' Gens
4. Ingthe'zhide Gens
5. Inshta'cunda Gens
Migration.
Traditions speak of the Omaha parting with the closely related southern tribe, the Quapaw, at the mouth of the Ohio River near the Mississippi River. By the early 1800's they had followed the Des Moines River into central and eastern Iowa, ceding lands to the US in the 1830's/
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Omaha refer to the great Power (*not an individual*) as Wakon'da, which can be translated as "mysterious life power"--something that is everywhere and in every thing. It is also the creator or source of all thing. They refer to a religious ceremony/rite as We''wacpe, which is translated as an activity that "brings people into order, and into thoughtful composure.)
First Official Treaty.
February 24, 1831. The Omaha and other smaller tribes first cede land to the United States (mostly extreme southeastern Nebraska.) A reservation for half-breed Indians of numerous tribes is created. The Omaha Reservation in northeastern Nebraska was created
on June 21, 1854.
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The Ponca.
The people call themselves the Ponka, the derivation and meaning or which is unknown.
*The Ponca were divided into Northern and Southern groups in the 1860's: The Northern staying in their Nebraska homeland, the Southern staying on the reservation in Oklahoma. They are part of the Siouan language group, speaking in a specific dialect referred to as Dehiga, as do the Omaha, Kansa, Osage and Quapar. Pre-emigration Ponca society was divided into seven gens or clans, listed in clockwise council, starting from the east (sub-gens are not listed):
1. The Wazaze, translated as "snake" or "Osage."
2. The Nikapasna, translated as "skull" or "bald head."
3. The Dixida, translated as "blood."
4. The Wasabe, translation unknown. The head chief of the tribe always came from this gen.
5. The Maka, translated as "medicine."
6. The Nuxe, translated as "ice."
7. The Hisada, translated as "the stretched leg of a running bird."
*(8). Wa-ge-ziga, translated as "white men's sons." Added supposedly to provide a clan for sons of white traders and Ponca mothers.
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Ponca refer to the great Power as Wakanda, translated as "the mysterious" or "powerful one." The term " xube" is used in reference to objects/animals/places that are "supernaturally powerful."
Migration.
It is probable that the Ponca migrated from the upper Mississippi River region, southwest toward the Missouri River into northeastern South Dakota, and then into their present location in southeastern South Dakota/extreme north central/northeast Nebraska. However, they are closely related to the Omaha; and with Omaha origins seemingly being the lower Mississippi Basin near the mouth of the Ohio River, whether the two spilt in ancient times or were joined together in the late 1700's, gradually moving apart as time went on is unknown.
First Official Treaty.
April 11, 1859. Lands are ceded to the U.S., and a reservation is created.
***The Ponca have the "honor" of being associated with one of the first pro-Indian legal decisions, which actually occurred in Nebraska. In 1879, a group of Ponca Indian under Standing Bear decided to leave their reservation in Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma.) The United States attempted to force their return, but the group was held by General Crook at Fort Omaha in Omaha, Nebraska, when Standing Bear refused their order. On April 18, 1879, the case "Standing Bear v. Crook" was heard by Judge Elmer Dundy, who ruled that Indians actually people, with the same rights as any other person. He further ruled that Indians could not be compelled in times of peace to live on any certain track of land, i.e. a reservation. Unfortunately, the case had little effect on the United States' dealings with Native peoples.
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The Arikara.
The Arikara are sometimes referred to as the Aricaree, or Rees. They are part of the Caddoan language group (see Pawnee notes.) From at least the mid 1700's, they lived in villages along the Missouri River, between the White and Grand Rivers (also just above the latter.) They were not nomadic (see below for exceptions) choosing to live in circular earthen lodges quite similar to those of the Skidi Pawnee, their close relatives.
The Arikara, like other sedentary tribes, were susceptible to the epidemic; and by 1830 their once large tribe had been reduced to perhaps 2000 individuals due to a series of smallpox epidemics. It is said that before the 18th century the Arikara were on good terms with the majority of Plains tribes, being respected traders of agricultural products, especially corn. The 1830's were years of transition, due to Dakota/Sioux pressure: The tribe left to live with the Skidis in Nebraska for a short time, moving into western Nebraska and South Dakota for a short time after a quarrel with them. By 1840 they were gradually moving up the Missouri River again. In the 1860's the tribe, being harried by the Dakota/Sioux, joined with the Hidatsa and Mandan village,(upriver from Fort Clark, which was abandoned in 1861) becoming the "Three Tribes." Their reservation was instituted at Fort Berthold in 1870.
Divisions are listed below. Names designate bands, though bands mixed in the dispersed villages.
--The awaahu (translation unknown)
--The tUkaatakUx (translated as "village against a hill.")
--The NAhuukaatA (translated as "by the water.")
--The ciNIhnaahtaUx (translated as "ash tree on a hill.")
--The tUhkAsthaanu (translated as "buffalo sod village.")
--The naakarikA (translated as "tree branch sticking out.")
--The huukaawirat (translated as "eastern.")
--The warihka (translation unknown.)
--The sitiniisapIt (translated as "they broke the arrow.")
--The wiita'uuxU (translated as "long haired man.")
(The two bands below were said to have existed at one time.)
--The nakaanusts (translated as "little chokecherry.")
--The Scirihau (translated as "coyote fat.")
Migration.
The Arikara probably migrated from the Southwest with the Skidi Pawnee, which occurred after the migration of the Pawnee Proper.
Abiding Power/ Creation Force:
The Arikara refer to the great Power (*not an individual*) as Chief Above (neesaanutinacitakUx), and their most important symbol is corn, referred to as Mother Corn.
First Official Treaty.
July 18, 1825. (This is one of the earlier treaties for Native Americans in this region, due to their power [made before the smallpox epedemics of the 1830's] and their proximity to the Missouri River trade/navigatio system.
The Cheyenne.
The Cheyenne (of the Algonquin language group) refer to themselves as Tsistsistas, translated as "us" or "the people." However, the word is also close to the word for "cut people" or "gashed people", which is white explorers and trappers called them due to their hand-sign by which one draws lines over the extended (pointing ahead) left forefinger with the right forefinger.
The Cheyenne were called the Sha-hi-ye-na or Sha-hi-e-la by the Dakota/Sioux (translated as "people whose speech cannot be understood" or [non-specifically] "red talkers." They were also sometimes called the Ni-om-ahe-tan-iu, or "the Sandhill men."
They have two major (non-geographical) divisions:
--The Tsis-tsis-tas, or Cheyenne Proper.
and
--The Suh-tai, or the group that joined the Cheyenne Proper.
(There is speculation regarding an ancient third tribe, the Hets-tsi-o-mis-tane, or "pipestem men.")
Geographical Division:
The Cheyenne had a Northern group and a Southern group, both of roughly the same size. (See below for specific band information.)
--Northern: The O-mis-sis and the Suh-tai, with few other band members included.
--Southern: All other bands.
It is said that the Cheyenne, at the time of combination with the Suh-tai, had only three major bands:
--The Hevataniu
--The Suhtai
--The Omissis
However, at the time of emigration there were said to be ten bands, perhaps descended from these original three. The number designates the order in which the bands were placed in the council circle, clockwise from the opening to the east.)
1. The I-vis-tsi-nih-pah, translated as "closing a hole in the heart."
2. The Suh-tai, translated as "scabby band."
3. The O-iv-i-ma-nah, translated as "fur (or) hair rope men"
4. The Issio-me-tan-iu, translated as "hill (or) ridge people."
5. The Wu-ta-piu and The Ho-ohkts-i-tan, translated as "eaters" (from the Dakota/Sioux) and "logmen" respectively.
6. The Hof-no-wa, translated as "poor people."
7. The Ohk-to-unna, translated as "lower jaws protruding" or "undershot."
8. The Suh-tai, translation unknown, possibly "the people left behind."
9. The Mah-sih-ko-ta, translated as "lying on side with knees drawn
up" or "reclining."
10. The O-mis-sis, translated as "eaters."
***This final group was by far the largest band of the tribe.
Migration.
The Cheyenne originally lived in the upper lakes regions (eastern Minnesota, then further west, specifically the Red River region) and then in what is now South Dakota (first eastern, then gradually west) and migrated to the west and south before emigration. At some point, most likely in the early 1800's, they crossed the Missouri River (called E-o-mi-ta-i, translated as "it gives fat") and met with another group that would become part of their people (see below.) The two are recorded as combined by 1831 (see Grinnell.)
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Cheyenne refer to their creator as Heammawihio, translated as "the wise one above" or "the chief above", from he-amma (above) and wi-hio, which denotes higher intelligence (also translates as spider and white man) and is close to the word for chief. There is also said to be a diety who lives underground (second to Heammawihio), named Ahk-tun-o-wihio. Both are beneficent. The place of the dead, Seyan or Sehan, is above with the creator.
Their most revered symbol were the Medicine Arrows.
First Official Treaty.
December 5, 1861. Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho cede lands to U.S., and a reservation is established. The Northern Cheyenne first "enter" into a treaty (along with the northern bands of Arapaho) on August 25, 1868, when a new reservation is established in the north.
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The Arapaho. (or Arapahoe.)
The Arapaho (of the Algonquin language group) refer to themselves as Hinanae'inan, the derivation and meaning of which is unknown. The sign for used at the time of emigration by the Arapaho to show their tribe was the extended index finger placed against the nose. Along the western border of the Arapaho were their enemies the Ute. To the south were the Kiowa and the Commanche, with whom the generally had peaceful relations.
The Arapaho are called the "Blue Clouds" by the Dakota/Sioux.
There were five sections/major bands of the Arapaho people. They are listed in order of dialectical relationship to the first and largest group.
--***The Hinanae'inan, or Arapaho Proper, translated as "father."
(see geographical separation, listed below.)
--The Baasanwuune'nan, translated as "shelter men."
--The Hitoune'nan or Gros Ventre, translated as "greedy men."
(This band is usually mis-described as a separate people.)
--The Nanwacinaha'anan, exact translation unknown, probably referring to the south.
--The Hananaxawuune'nan, translated as "rock men."
There was also a separation by geographical location, as the Arapaho were divided into a Northern and Southern group. These two groups are said to have been in this division before they were confined to reservations (the Northern group in Colorado, then Wyoming, the Southern in Oklahoma.) Both are part of the Hinanae'inan or Arapaho Proper.
The Northern group was referred to with many names:
--Nank'haanseine'nan, or "sagebrush men."
--Baantciine'nan, or "red willow men."
--Baakuune'nan, or "blood soup men."
--Nanabine'nan, or "northern men."
The Southern group:
--Nanwuine'nan, or "southern men."
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Arapaho refer to their creator/supreme deity as Heisanani, translated as "our father." Their most important ceremony is the Sun-Dance, and their most important religious symbol/object is the flat pipe, or saeitcan.
The screech owl or baaceinan is thought to be a ghost.
First Official Treaty.
December 5, 1861: Arapaho living in Kansas and Colorado, and Southern Cheyennes cede certain lands to the U.S., and a reservation in Colorado is set aside. On August 25, 1868, Arapahos living to the north, along with Northern Cheyennes, have a new reservation established.
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The Oto (or Otoe/Ottoe) and Missouris (or Missouria.)
The Oto (of the Siouan language group) were originally part of a larger tribe that included the Winnebago, Iowa, and Missouri tribes. They remained close to the Missouris, incorporating with these Dihega speaking peoples sometime in the 1820’s. They refer to themselves as Che-wae-rae. Though a small tribe, they played a significant role in 1878, when the Ponca fugitives from Indian Territory, led by Standing Bear, arrived in southern Nebraska, The Otos, though very poor, provided food and clothing for the Ponca in their trek back to their ancestral lands.
The Oto were unfortunate in their pre-emigration lands were in southeastren Nebraska, northeastern Kansas and northwestern Missouri. When non-Mormon emigration began (the Mormons, for the most part, came through Iowa and crossed at the Council Bluffs) the emigrants found their outfits and supplies in places such as Westport Landing and St. Joseph, Missouri--cities very close to Oto land. The huge number of white settlers-to-be completely disrupted the game in the area; and this fact, coupled with the constant pressure to move and the numerous cases of abuse by emigrants reduced the tribe to beggary. They are frequently maligned in emigrant journals and early newspaper reports.
In regard to society, the Oto were really a grouping of different gens--related peoples who had specific and unique origins. The gens which existed at reservation time were the Bear, Beaver, Elk, Buffalo, Eagle, Pigeon, Hoot Owl, and the earliest extinct gens, the Coyote and Snake. Societal differentiation is difficult due to the fusion of the Oto and Missouri people sometime in the 1820’s. The Oto were semi-nomadic: They built small earthen lodges, but would also make journeys (using tipis) to pursue buffalo.
Abiding Power / Creation Force.
The Oto people refer to a supernatural power as Wak’onta, which is more a notation of the whole of supernatural forces than a specific deity. They, like most of the tribes of the region, saw supernatural elements in the matter of the earth, such as animals (especially the Eagle) and waters. Individuals had different abilities regarding the sensing or understanding of supernatural power. Visions were a way for the supernatural to contact the Oto, and dreams were sometimes prophetic or instructive, though not necessarily so.
Migration.
The Oto most likely came from the northern regions of Wisconsin, the state in which the Winnebago would stay before white settlement. According to explorer testimony, they gradually moved south and west, having come to the Platte River of Nebraska by the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
First Official Treaty.
February 24, 1831. The Oto and Missouri tribes cede lands to the U.S. On June 21, 1854, the remainder of Oto/Missouri lands were ceded to the U.S. and their southeastern Nebraska reservation was created.
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Sources.
Dorsey, George A. The Pawnee Mythology. 1906. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1997.
Fletcher, Alice C. and LaFlesche, Francis. The Omaha Tribe. 1906. 2 vols. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1992.
Government Printing Office. Land Laws of the United States of a Local and Temporary Character. 2 vols. Washington: GPO, 1884.
Grinnell, George Bird. The Cheyenne Indians. 1923. 2 vols. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1972.
---. Pawnee Hero-Stories and Folk Tales. 1899. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1961.
Howard, James. H. The Ponca Tribe. 1965. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1995.
Kroeber, Alfred L. The Arapaho. 1907. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1983.
Lowie, Robert H. The Crow Indians. 1935. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1983.
Parks, Douglas R. Myths and Traditions of the Arikara Indians. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1996.
Walker, James R. Lakota Society. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1982.
Whitman, William. The Oto. New York: Columbia U Press, 1937.