Research Interests

Functional morphology

My primary research interest is addressing the question, "How do animals work?". I use computer modelling and experiments to investigate the link between form and function in living and fossil vertebrates. I explore how these change during growth and along evolutionary lineages, and how functional morphology is correlated to macroevolutionary events, such as diversity trends and environmental changes.

Finite element analysis (FEA)

I apply FEA to understand how skeletons are adapted to loads imposed by muscles and the environment. My finite element models incorporate detailed skeletal morphology, accurate muscle loads and biological material properties to predict the mechanical response of skeletons under a range of loading conditions. Models of living animals are validated against in vivo data to ensure accuracy. Current areas of focus include jaw mechanics in fish, early tetrapods and archosaurs, with previously published work on skull function in lizards, crocodilians and dinosaurs.

Dynamic modelling

Using custom-written scripts in Mathematica, I quantify limb kinematics and perform inverse dynamic modelling of locomotion in living amphibians. The latest phase of this research project involves using these data to model jumping and walking in fossil forms and understand the evolution of locomotion and multi-functionality in early amphibians and their ancestors.

Finite element model of Alligator skull with jaw muscle attachment

sites mapped onto model. From Porro et al., 2011, 2013.

Experimental methods

I have collected data from living fish, amphibians, lizards, crocodilians and mammals, including:

  • Movements during feeding and locomotion

  • using high-speed video, fluoroscopy and 3D cameras

  • Information on muscle activity from electromyography

  • Forces exerted during biting and locomotion

  • Bone strains

    • Biological material properties using nanoindentation

In addition to new information on musculoskeletal function and integration, I have used in vivo data to refine and validate digital models.

Stick figure (spine and right leg) of a frog during jumping in posterodorsal view. Red line indicates ground reaction force. From in vivo kinematic and force plate data. CLICK image to activate animation.

Descriptive anatomy and taxonomy

Early tetrapods

Careful study of prepared specimens combined with data from CT scans allow me to produce detailed anatomical descriptions of early tetrapods, including iconic taxa such as Acanthostega, Eusthenopteron and Crassigyrinus.

Early dinosaurs

I have described the skulls of several early dinosaur species, with a particular focus on basal ornithischians, including a new species of South African heterodontosaurid and Fruitadens, the smallest North American dinosaur. Additionally, I have pioneered new methods to digitally "retrodeform" fossil skulls, removing millions of years of deformation and breakage to accurately reconstruct the 3D shape and carry out biomechanica; analyses.

3D reconstruction of the skull of Acanthostega in dorsal view with individual

bones shown in different colours. From Porro et al. 2015.

Segmented dentaries and maxilla of Fruitadens - the smallest North American dinosaur - showing replacement teeth and internal vasculature (left) with reconstruction of Fruitadens (right). See 2010 and 2012 publications.

CT scanning combined with computer software permits visualization of morphology in living and fossil animals. Fossil specimens can be digitally prepared by stripping off matrix and 3D reconstruction. Contrast enhanced CT-scanning can be used to visualize soft tissues including muscles and nervous tissues in extant animals. I have used these data to produce detailed

anatomical descriptions and provide input for biomechanical models.

Visualization of hard and soft tissues

Methodological advancements

I am constantly exploring emerging biomechanical methods and and work hard to improve the accuracy of existing techinques through validation and sensitivity analyses, allowing me to identify testable functional hypotheses in both living and fossil animals.

Digital dissection of the fish Esox (pike) and Anguilla (eel) from contrast-enhanced CT scans.