The Chola Empire: Governance and Management of Distant Territories 

During the Chola Empire (10th-11th centuries), governance was highly decentralized, with a robust system of local administration that played a crucial role in the empire’s success. The empire was divided into large territorial units called "mandalams", which were further subdivided into "valanadus", and within each "valanadu", there were smaller administrative units known as "kottams" or "kuttrams". Each "kottam" was made up of several villages, and a collection of villages would form a larger region known as a "nadu", "kurram", or "mandalam". At the lowest level of governance, villages operated as self-governing units, and multiple villages came together to form a *nadu*, where the governance system allowed for local administration and community decision-making.

The Chola administration was marked by a significant role of local councils, particularly the "sabhas". These village assemblies were responsible for the management of local affairs, including tax collection, maintaining law and order, and overseeing the distribution and use of land. The "sabhas" had a well-established system for managing land, as different types of land—such as temple land, agricultural land, and donated land—were overseen by these assemblies. The functioning of the "sabhas" is particularly well-documented in the inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Tamil Nadu, which describe a unique system for selecting members. The election process was designed to ensure fairness and impartiality: eligible members’ names were written on palm-leaf tickets, placed in a pot, and drawn randomly by a young boy. This system minimized bias and ensured that everyone had an equal opportunity to participate in governance. The "sabha" managed essential local matters such as irrigation systems, maintenance of gardens, and the upkeep of temples.

The Chola Empire was also known for its powerful and well-organized military, which was a key factor in its territorial expansion and dominance. The military consisted of four main elements: the cavalry, the elephant corps, the infantry, and the navy. The Chola navy, in particular, was one of the most formidable maritime forces in ancient India. It enabled the Cholas to expand their empire beyond the Indian subcontinent, including the invasion and destruction of the Anuradhapura Kingdom of Sri Lanka. This military action resulted in the widespread devastation of Sri Lanka and the enslavement of many Sinhalese, who were subsequently transported to South India. The navy also played a key role in the Cholas’ successful raids on the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia, between 900 and 1100 CE. Despite its early prominence, the Chola navy's importance gradually waned as the empire shifted its military focus toward land-based battles, especially against the Chalukyas in South India.

In terms of administrative structure, the Cholas utilized a highly organized system of local governance, with "mandalams" functioning as the highest level of administrative division, followed by "valanadus", "kottams", and "nadu" or "kurrams". Each level had its own set of responsibilities, with local officials—such as the "grama sabhas"—overseeing day-to-day village affairs. The decentralized nature of the Chola administrative system allowed for effective local control and the participation of people at every level of society in governance. This system not only ensured a smooth functioning of the empire but also promoted a sense of communal responsibility and involvement in governance, which played a crucial role in maintaining stability and fostering economic growth across the empire.

Thus, the Chola Empire’s combination of decentralized governance, local assemblies, and a strong military presence contributed to its ability to maintain control over vast territories and expand its influence across South Asia and Southeast Asia. The legacy of their governance systems, particularly the "sabha" and its fair election processes, influenced later dynasties and left a lasting impact on the administrative practices of medieval India.