Vitamins & Minerals

A brief history on vitamins

Vitamins were initially named "vitamines" because the scientist who discovered them, Casimir Funk (1884-1967), believed they were vital to life and had to contain an amine. The "e" at the end was removed once it was recognized that vitamins do not have to be amines. They are lettered in the order by which they were discovered [22].

Vitamins as coenzymes

Many B vitamins serve as precursors for coenzymes. Coenzymes are nonprotein compounds that are required for the activity of certain enzymes [23].

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Thiamine (B1)

Acts as a cofactor (reusable non-protein, inorganic molecules) for enzymes that break down glucose for energy production
Plays a role in the synthesis of ribose from glucose - required for RNA, DNA, and ATP synthesis

Riboflavin (B2)

Essential component of flavoproteins, which are coenzymes involved in many metabolic pathways
- Aid in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain (and thus production of ATP); active form is flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) or flavin mononucleotide (FMN)

Niacin (B3)

Found as nicotinamide or nicotinic acid
- Component of coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and its phosphorylated form (NADP+), which are involved in the metabolism of carbs, lipids, and proteins
- Predominant electron carrier; transfers e- to the electron transport chain

Required for the anabolic pathways of fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis
Unlike other vitamins, niacin can be synthesized by humans from the amino acid tryptophan (but only after tryptophan has met all its other needs in the body)

Pantothenic Acid (B5)

Forms coenzyme-A, which is the main carrier of carbon molecules in a cell; acetyl-CoA is the carbon carrier of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids in the citric acid cycle
Coenzyme A is also involved in the synthesis of lipids, cholesterol, and acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter)

Pyridoxine (B6)

Coenzyme involved in nitrogen transfer between amino acids, and therefore plays role in protein synthesis and catabolism
Functions to release glucose from glycogen in glycogenolysis
Required by enzymes for the synthesis of multiple neurotransmitters and hemoglobin (required for hemoglobin synthesis)

Biotin (B7)

Coenzyme in the citric acid cycle and in lipid metabolism
Required as an enzyme in the synthesis of glucose, fatty acids, and some nonessential amino acids
Carries CO₂ away from the citric acid cycle

Folate (B9)

Required coenzyme for the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, and for making RNA and DNA; therefore, rapidly dividing cells are most affected by folate deficiency
Essential for the growth and specialization of cells and the central nervous system
Deficiency in mothers linked to the development of spina bifida (neural-tube defect that occurs when the spine doesn’t completely enclose the spinal cord; can lead to many physical and mental disabilities)

Cobalamine (B12)

Contains cobalt - only vitamin that contains a metal ion
Necessary for fat and protein catabolism, folate coenzyme function, and hemoglobin synthesis

[23][24]

Vitamin C

Also known as ascorbic acid, vitamin C is necessary for the growth and repair of all body tissues
- It is involved in the formation of collagen, absorption of iron, immune system function, wound healing, and the maintenance of cartilage, bones, and teeth [25]
It's an antioxidant!

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

keep eyes, skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and nervous system in good shape.

Vitamin A

Refers to a group of fat-soluble retinoids, including retinol, retinal, and retinyl esters
- Two forms of vitamin A are available in the human diet: preformed vitamin A (retinol and its esterified form, retinyl ester) and provitamin A carotenoids
- The most important provitamin A carotenoid is beta-carotene, which is also an antioxidant
Boosts immune function, vision, reproductive health, and cellular communication
Supports cell growth and differentiation
- Plays a critical role in the formation and maintenance of the heart, lungs, kidneys, and other organs

While it doesn't actually improve eyesight, it is important for vision because it's an essential component of rhodopsin, a protein that absorbs light in the retinal receptors, and because it supports the functioning and formation of the conjunctival membranes and cornea

[26]

From https://www.labpedia.net/vitamin-a-retinol-retinoid-and-carotenoid/

From https://www.news-medical.net/health/Rheumatoid-Arthritis-and-Vitamin-D.aspx

Vitamin D

In addition to obtaining it through food intake, vitamin D is also produced endogenously, triggered by the sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays when they strike the skin
Needed for bone growth and remodeling; prevents bones from becoming brittle or misshapen
Promotes calcium absorption and adequate calcium and phosphorus serum concentrations

[27]

The diagram on the left shows two methods of vitamin D acquisition: through digestion and endogenous production sparked by UV rays. The 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)2D refer to coverted forms of the vitamin.

Vitamin E

"Vitamin E" is the collective name for a group of fat-soluble compounds with antioxidant properties
- Alpha-tocopherol is the only form that is recognized to meet human requirements
  - Naturally occuring vitamin E exists in eight chemical forms: alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol and alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocotrienol
Also involved in immune function, cell signalling, regulation of gene expression, and other metabolic processes

[25]

Vitamin K

Required for optimal bone metabolism and blood function (promotes regular clotting)
Deficiency causes bleeding disorders

[24]

Major Minerals

**Not an extensive list**

Sodium & Potassium

Sodium and potassium work together to aid the function of a specialized type of transport protein that aids nerve signaling, heart contractions, normal kidney function, and many other important processes.
This transport protein is called the sodium-potassium pump, and it aids active transport (requires additional energy) of substances across the cell membrane

Calcium

With vitamin D, calcium helps build bones and keep them healthy.
It also enables our blood to clot and our muscles to contract, including our heartbeat
About 99% of the calcium in our bodies is in our bones and teeth!
We lose calcium each day through our skin, nails, hair, sweat, and body waste, and our bodies cannot produce its own calcium. When we don’t get our necessary calcium from our diet, it is taken from our bones, which will weaken them if it happens too often.

[28]

Trace Minerals

**Not an extensive list**

Iron

Carries oxygen throughout the body

- Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen to each of the body’s cells, where it aids in generating energy through cellular respiration. They make up about 40 percent of the blood's volume.
- Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a four-protein-chain molecule that contains iron.
The body cannot make iron on its own, which is why consuming it in adequate amounts is so important!
Works with copper to help the body form red blood cells

[29]

From https://i2.wp.com/smithhopen.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/iStock-1216748897.jpg?fit=760%2C471&ssl=1

Iodine

Iodine is an essential component of thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
Without enough iodine, TSH levels remain elevated, leading to goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland. This occurs because the body attempts to trap more iodine from its circulation in the bloodstream and produce thyroid hormones

[3]

Magnesium

Functions as a cofactor in hundreds of metabolic reactions
ATP exists as a complex with magnesium
- Magnesium is therefore involved in all reactions that synthesize or require ATP.
Eleventh most abundant element in the human body!

[29]

Zinc

Aids immune system, metabolism, protein and DNA synthesis, cell division, and wound healing
- Because of zinc's prominent roles in anabolic processes, a zinc deficiency in children can stunt their growth
It is required for the function of hundreds of enzymes!
As with many other vitamins and minerals, a daily intake of zinc is needed to maintain steady levels because the body has no specialized way of storing it.

[29][30]

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