Alphabets

HEBREW ALPHABET (Ktav Ashuri - Modern Script)

א (Alef) 

IPA: /ʔ/ or silent.

 Alef is a unique letter in the Hebrew script that typically represents a glottal stop or acts as a silent placeholder for vowels. Though it has no sound on its own, it is fundamental to Hebrew orthography, often beginning or ending words.

ב (Bet/Vet) 

IPA: /b/ (with dagesh), /v/ (without).

 This letter has two primary pronunciations depending on the presence of a dagesh (a dot placed inside the letter). When בּ (with dagesh) is used, it is pronounced /b/, like the English 'b' in "boy" and is called Bet. When ב (without dagesh) appears, it is pronounced /v/, like the English 'v' in "vet", and is referred to as Vet. This dual pronunciation is part of the broader Hebrew phenomenon of begadkephat letters, which change their sound based on dagesh placement. This distinction is crucial in both biblical and modern Hebrew.

ג (Gimel) 

IPA: /ɡ/. 

Gimel represents the voiced velar stop, like 'g' in "go." In some dialects, especially among Mizrahi and older Sephardic traditions, it may have a fricative variant /ɣ/ when without a dagesh.

ד (Dalet) 

IPA: /d/. 

Dalet corresponds to the voiced dental stop, like 'd' in "door." In Tiberian Hebrew and some traditional readings, it may have a fricative counterpart /ð/ (like 'th' in "this") when without a dagesh.

ה (He) 

IPA: /h/. 

He represents a voiceless glottal fricative, similar to the English 'h' in "house." It is a soft consonant and can sometimes fall silent, especially at the end of words. It also serves a grammatical function in denoting the definite article "הַ" (ha-).

ו (Vav) 

IPA: /v/, /o/, /u/. 

Vav is a multifunctional letter. As a consonant, it is pronounced /v/, like the English 'v' in "voice." As a mater lectionis (a consonant letter used to indicate a vowel), it can represent the vowel sounds /o/ or /u/, depending on the surrounding niqqud (vowel points). For instance, וֹ indicates an 'o' sound, and וּ signifies a 'u' sound.

ז (Zayin) 

IPA: /z/. 

Zayin makes the same sound as the English 'z' in "zebra." Beyond its phonetic role, it holds symbolic meaning in Jewish mysticism, where it is associated with power or weaponry (its name is related to the Hebrew word for weapon, "זַיִן").

ח (Chet) 

IPA: /χ/ or /ħ/. 

Chet is a voiceless pharyngeal or uvular fricative, common in Semitic languages but unfamiliar to most English speakers. It is often written as "ch" in transliteration but should not be confused with the English "ch" sound as in "church." Its pronunciation is guttural and produced at the back of the throat. In modern Israeli Hebrew, it's closer to /χ/, while traditional Sephardic and Mizrahi pronunciations may render it as /ħ/.

ט (Tet) 

IPA: /tˤ/. 

Tet is an emphatic or pharyngealized /t/ sound. While this distinction is largely lost in modern Hebrew where it sounds like a regular /t/, traditionally it was pronounced with a heavier emphasis from the back of the throat, especially in Mizrahi dialects.

י (Yod) 

IPA: /j/. 

Yod functions like the English 'y' in "yes." It can also serve as a mater lectionis representing the vowel /i/ (as in יִ) and is essential in forming diphthongs and vowel sounds.

כ / ך (Kaf/Final Kaf) 

IPA: /k/ (with dagesh), /χ/ (without). 

Like Bet, Kaf is one of the begadkephat letters. With a dagesh, כּ is pronounced /k/, like 'k' in "king." Without it, כ becomes a voiceless uvular fricative /χ/, similar to the Scottish "loch." The final form ך is used when the letter appears at the end of a word.

ל (Lamed)

IPA: /l/. 

Lamed is a voiced alveolar lateral approximant, the same as the English 'l' in "light." It is the tallest letter in written Hebrew and often used symbolically for learning (from the root למד).

מ / ם (Mem/Final Mem)

IPA: /m/. 

Mem is a bilabial nasal, like the English 'm' in "mother." The final form ם appears at the end of words.

נ / ן (Nun/Final Nun) 

IPA: /n/. 

Nun is a voiced alveolar nasal, like the English 'n' in "name." Its final form ן is elongated vertically and appears only at word endings.

ס (Samekh) 

IPA: /s/. 

Samekh corresponds to the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, like 's' in "sun." It is used interchangeably with שׂ (Sin) in terms of sound but not in spelling.

ע (Ayin) 

IPA: /ʕ/ or silent. 

Traditionally a voiced pharyngeal fricative /ʕ/, Ayin is now often silent in modern Israeli Hebrew. Historically and in Mizrahi pronunciation, it had a deep guttural sound.

פ / ף (Pe/Fe - Final Pe) 

IPA: /p/ (with dagesh), /f/ (without). 

With a dagesh, פּ is pronounced /p/, like 'p' in "pen." Without it, פ becomes /f/, as in "fun," and is called Fe. The final form ף appears at the end of words.

צ / ץ (Tsadi/Final Tsadi) 

IPA: /ts/. 

Tsadi represents an affricate /ts/, similar to the 'ts' in "cats." The final form ץ is used at the end of words.

ק (Qof) 

IPA: /k/ or /q/. 

Qof traditionally represents a uvular stop /q/, produced farther back in the mouth than Kaf. In modern Hebrew, it is pronounced like /k/ but retains its distinct spelling and symbolism.

ר (Resh) 

IPA: /ʁ/, /r/, or /ɾ/. Resh varies by dialect. In modern Israeli Hebrew, it's usually a uvular fricative /ʁ/, similar to the French 'r'. In older Sephardic and Mizrahi traditions, it's a flap /ɾ/ or trill /r/.

שׁ / שׂ (Shin/Sin) 

IPA: /ʃ/ for Shin, /s/ for Sin. 

This letter has two pronunciations depending on the placement of a dot. A dot on the right (שׁ) indicates Shin, pronounced /ʃ/ as in "shoe." A dot on the left (שׂ) indicates Sin, pronounced /s/ like "sun."

ת (Tav) 

IPA: /t/. 

Tav is a voiceless alveolar stop, pronounced like 't' in "top." In Ashkenazi tradition, it could be pronounced /s/ without a dagesh, but in modern Hebrew, this distinction is no longer observed.

NIQQUD (Hebrew Vowel Points)

The Hebrew script originally contained only consonants. To aid pronunciation, especially in sacred texts, the Masoretes developed Niqqud

ָ (Kamatz) 

IPA: /aː/. 

A long 'a' sound, like 'a' in "father."

ַ (Patach)  

IPA: /a/. 

A short 'a' sound, like 'a' in "cat."

ֵ (Tzere)  

IPA: /e/. 

A long 'e' sound, like 'e' in "they."

ֶֶ (Segol)  

IPA: /ɛ/. 

A short 'e' sound, like 'e' in "bed."

ִ (Chirik)  

IPA: /i/. 

Like 'ee' in "machine."

ֹ (Holam)  

IPA: /o/. 

Like 'o' in "no."

ֻ (Kubutz)  

IPA: /u/. 

Like 'oo' in "boot."

ּ (Dagesh)  A dot placed inside certain letters to change their pronunciation (e.g., /b/ vs. /v/).

ְ (Shva)  

IPA: /ə/ or silent. 

Can indicate a very short vowel or a complete absence of a vowel.

ֲ (Chataf Patach)  

IPA: /ə/. 

A very short 'a' sound.

ֱ (Chataf Segol)  

IPA: /ɛ/. 

A very short 'e' sound.

ֳ (Chataf Kamatz)  

IPA: /ɔ/. 

A very short 'o' sound.

YIDDISH ALPHABET (Alefbeys)

Yiddish uses the Hebrew script but adapts it to reflect its Germanic phonology. Unlike Hebrew, Yiddish is a phonetic language: almost every sound is written. It uses additional diacritic marks and letter combinations to express sounds not found in Hebrew. Below are the core letters used in Yiddish writing, their IPA pronunciation, and phonetic explanations.

א (Alef) 

IPA: /ʔ/ or silent. As in Hebrew, Alef is usually silent in Yiddish but often used as a base to carry vowels. For example, אָ (Alef + Komets) is pronounced /o/.

ב (Beis) 

IPA: /b/. Always pronounced /b/ in Yiddish, unlike in Hebrew where it may be /v/ without a dagesh.

בֿ (Veys) 

IPA: /v/. Written as a Beis with a rafe (small horizontal line above), this represents /v/. This distinction is unique to Yiddish and replaces the Hebrew "Vet".

ג (Giml) 

IPA: /g/. Same as in Hebrew, always pronounced as a hard /g/ as in "go".

ד (Daled) 

IPA: /d/. Same as in Hebrew, pronounced /d/ as in "dog".

ה (Hey) 

IPA: /h/. Used at the beginning of syllables for /h/, and also at the end of words to indicate a vowel ending, such as "-e".

ו (Vov) 

Multiple uses:

• ו = /v/

• וו = /v/ (double Vov for clarity)

• וּ = /u/ (Vov with dagesh, or "melupm vov")

• ֹו = /o/ (Vov with holam, called "komets-alef" in Yiddish)

ז (Zayin) 

IPA: /z/. 

Same as Hebrew. Used for /z/ as in "zoo".

זש (Zayen-Shin) 

IPA: /ʒ/. 

This digraph is used for the voiced "zh" sound, like in French "jardin" or English "measure".

ח (Khes)

 IPA: /χ/ or /x/. A guttural sound as in Hebrew "Chet", used for /kh/ as in "Bach" or the Scottish "loch".

ט (Tes) 

IPA: /t/. Same as in Hebrew, used for /t/.

י (Yud) 

Multiple uses:

• י = /j/ as in "yes"

• יי = /ɛj/ as in the Yiddish word "זייַט" (/zɛjt/) – meaning "be" (imperative). These combinations represent diphthongs starting with the open-mid front vowel /ɛ/ followed by the palatal glide /j/.

• ײַ = /aj/ as in "my" (Yud + Patach, "pasekh-tsvey-yud")

כ (Khof) 

IPA: /x/. Always pronounced /kh/ in Yiddish.

כּ (Kuf or Kuflekh) 

IPA: /k/. Represented by Kaf with dagesh, pronounced /k/. In modern orthography, this may be written as ק.

ל (Lamed) 

IPA: /l/. Same as in Hebrew.

מ / ם (Mem) 

IPA: /m/. Same in Yiddish and Hebrew.

נ / ן (Nun) 

IPA: /n/. Same in Yiddish and Hebrew.

ס (Samekh) 

IPA: /s/. Used for /s/ sound.

ע (Ayin) 

IPA: /ɛ/. In Yiddish, Ayin typically represents the vowel /ɛ/, as in the "e" of bed. This is a major departure from Hebrew usage, where Ayin may be silent or guttural. In Yiddish orthography, Ayin often appears at the beginning of syllables to indicate an initial vowel sound, particularly when combined with niqqud-like diacritics or following consonants. 

פּ (Pey) 

IPA: /p/. Written with a dagesh to distinguish from פֿ (Fey).

פֿ (Fey) 

IPA: /f/. Pey with rafe to indicate the /f/ sound.

צ / ץ (Tzadi/Final Tzadi) 

IPA: /ts/. Same as in Hebrew.

ק (Kuf) 

IPA: /k/. Same as in Hebrew.

ר (Reysh) 

IPA: /ʁ/, /r/. In Yiddish, pronounced with a uvular fricative /ʁ/ or rolled /r/, depending on dialect.

ש (Shin) 

IPA: /ʃ/. Always pronounced as "sh". In Yiddish orthography, dot placement (Shin vs. Sin) is generally not used.

ת (Ses) 

IPA: /s/. In Yiddish, Tav is pronounced /s/, similar to the old Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation.

תּ (Tuf) 

IPA: /t/. When Tav is written with dagesh, it is pronounced /t/.

YIDDISH VOWEL DIGRAPHS AND SPECIAL COMBINATIONS

Yiddish uses several digraphs to express vowel combinations or diphthongs that do not exist in Hebrew. These are phonemically distinct and written consistently.

• ײַ 

IPA: /aj/. Pasekh-tsvey-yud. As in מײַן (/majn/, "my").

• יי 

IPA: /ɛj/. Tsvey yud. As in ווייניק (/vɛinik/, "little").

• וי 

IPA: /oj/. As in בויל 

• עו 

IPA: /ɛu/. Seen in borrowed or expressive forms.

• ײִ 

IPA: /ji/

LADINO ALPHABET (Judeo-Spanish in Hebrew Script)

Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish or Judezmo, traditionally uses the Hebrew script to represent the phonology of Old Spanish as preserved by Sephardic Jews. While the Rashi script and Solitreo cursive were historically prevalent, modern printed Ladino often uses standard Hebrew square script (Ktav Ashuri) for accessibility. Unlike Hebrew, Ladino spelling is designed to closely mirror Spanish pronunciation and may use combinations of letters and optional diacritics to mark vowels and foreign sounds. Niqqud are rarely used but may appear for clarification.

Let's dive into Ladino Hebrew letters, their standard pronunciation IPA, and explanation:

א (Alef) 

IPA: /ʔ/ or silent. Serves primarily as a placeholder for initial vowels. For example, אמור = "love".

ב (Bet) 

IPA: /b/. Always pronounced /b/, as in Spanish bueno.

בֿ (Vet) 

IPA: /v/. Used to represent the /v/ sound.

ג (Gimel) 

IPA: /g/. Normally /g/ as in gato, but the digraph ג׳ is used for /dʒ/ as in djudyo (Jew).

ד (Daled) 

IPA: /d/. As in día (day), pronounced /d/.

ה (He) 

IPA: /h/. Used for /h/ at the start of a word, and also at the end of feminine words ending in -a. E.g., kaza (house) might be spelled קאזא or קאזה.

ו (Vav) 

IPA: /v/, /u/, /o/. Represents several sounds:

• As a consonant /v/, e.g., vida (life).

• As a vowel /u/, especially when followed by Alef or Yod, e.g., luz = לוז.

• Sometimes written with Holam or Shuruk to mark /o/ or /u/.

ז (Zayin) 

IPA: /z/. Used for /z/ as in זונא (zone).

ח (Chet) 

IPA: /χ/ . A strong guttural sound.

ט (Tet) 

IPA: /t/. As in tarde (afternoon).

י (Yod) — IPA: /j/, /i/. Serves both consonantal /j/ (as in yo) and vowel /i/ (as in si). For example:

• 1. יהודיו (Yehudío) = "Jewish"

  2. סיניורה (señora) = "lady"

• יי (Double Yod) — IPA: /i/, /ej/, /ɛj/. Used for long /i/ or diphthongs depending on context.

• ייַ — IPA: /ɛj/. A diphthong used in words like מייַיר (mayor), especially in dialects influenced by other Romance tongues.

ני (Nun-Yod) 

IPA: /ɲ/. As in נינ׳ו(kid).

ל (Lamed) 

IPA: /l/. As in לוז (light).

מ / ם (Mem) 

IPA: /m/. As in מאנו (hand).

נ / ן (Nun) 

IPA: /n/. As in נוג׳׳י (night).

ס (Samekh) 

IPA: /s/. Represents /s/ as in סול (sun).

ע (Ayin) 

IPA: /ʔ/, /a/, /ɛ/. Often silent or used to represent a vowel, especially /a/ or /ɛ/.

פ / ף (Pe/Final Pe) 

IPA: /p/. Used for the /p/ sound.

צ / ץ (Tzadi/Final Tzadi) 

IPA: /ts/. Used for the /ts/ sound, e.g., פאנזא (belly).

ק (Kuf) 

IPA: /k/.

ר (Reish) 

IPA: /r/. Trilled or tapped /r/.

ש (Shin) 

IPA: /ʃ/. Used in borrowed words.

ז׳ (Zayin with Geresh) 

IPA: /ʒ/. As in French 'genre'

ת (Tav) 

IPA: /t/.

Ladino also uses digraphs and vowel-based combinations to represent sounds:

• נ׳׳ = /ɲ/, for ñ as in ניינ׳ו.

• ג׳ = /dʒ/, as in ג׳ודיו.

• ג׳׳ = /tʃ/, as in מוג׳׳ו.

Ladino Vowels (No Niqqud)

Vowels in Ladino are usually written using א (Alef), י (Yod), and ו (Vav). They are:

• /a/ = א

• /e/ = ע, א 

• /i/ = אי

• /o/ = או

• /u/ = ו

• /ɛ/ = ע 

• /je/,/ji/ = יי , ייַ

ARAMAIC ALPHABET (Ktav Ashuri – Imperial & Jewish Dialects)

Aramaic, the ancient Semitic language spoken across Mesopotamia, the Israel, the Judea, and other levant regions, shares the same square script (Ktav Ashuri) as Hebrew. It was once the lingua franca of empires, sacred writings, and daily life for Jews, Christians, and others. The script is identical to Hebrew in appearance, but the phonology and usage differ across time periods and dialects.

Below is a description of each Aramaic letter, its pronunciation (IPA), and phonological notes relevant to Jewish Aramaic:

א (Alef) 𐡀

IPA: /ʔ/ or silent. Often acts as a glottal stop or as a carrier for vowel sounds at the beginning of words.

בּ (Bet with dagesh) 𐡁 

IPA: /b/. Represents the plosive /b/ as in bet.

ב (Vet without dagesh) 

IPA: /v/. Represents the fricative /v/ as in lev (heart).

ג (Gimel) 𐡂 

IPA: /g/. A hard /g/ as in gamal (camel). Some dialects had a soft fricative variant.

דּ (Daled with dagesh) 𐡃 

IPA: /d/. Represents the plosive /d/ as in davar (word).

ד (Daled without dagesh) 

IPA: /ð/. Pronounced as a voiced dental fricative /ð/ (like "th" in "this"). 

ה (He) 𐡄 

IPA: /h/. A soft aspirated sound, often dropped at word-final position in Galilean dialects.

ו (Vav) 𐡅 

IPA: /w/ or /v/. Originally a glide /w/, but evolved to /v/ in many Jewish dialects. Also marks vowels /o/ and /u/.

ז (Zayin) 𐡆 

IPA: /z/. As in zeman (time).

ח (Chet) 𐡇

IPA: /ħ/ or /χ/. A strong guttural fricative. Sometimes pronounced like Arabic ḥāʾ.

ט (Tet) 𐡈

IPA: /tˤ/ or /t/. An emphatic /t/, pharyngealized in older dialects. Later merged with plain /t/.

י (Yod) 𐡉

IPA: /j/ or /i/. Consonantal /j/ as in yes, and vowel /i/ as in bin.

כּ (Kaf with dagesh) 𐡊

IPA: /k/. Represents the plosive /k/ as in kuf (monkey).

כ / ך (Kaf/Final Kaf without dagesh)

 IPA: /x/. Represents the fricative /x/ as in ruach (spirit).

ל (Lamed) 𐡋

 IPA: /l/. A lateral /l/ sound, unchanged from Hebrew.

מ / ם (Mem) 𐡌

IPA: /m/. As in malka (queen).

נ / ן (Nun) 𐡍

IPA: /n/. As in nasha (to forget).

ס (Samekh) 𐡎

IPA: /s/. Represents a clear /s/ sound.

ע (Ayin) 𐡏

IPA: /ʕ/, /ʔ/, or silent. Historically a voiced pharyngeal /ʕ/, often silent in Jewish traditions.

פּ (Pe with dagesh) 𐡐

IPA: /p/. Represents the plosive /p/ as in par (bull).

פ / ף (Pe/Final Pe without dagesh) 

IPA: /f/. Represents the fricative /f/ as in sefer (book).

צ / ץ (Tsadi/Final Tsadi) 𐡑

IPA: /sˤ /. As in sˤafra (morning).

ק (Qof) 𐡒

 IPA: /q/ or /k/. Originally a uvular /q/, preserved in eastern dialects. Often pronounced /k/ by later readers.

ר (Reish) 𐡓

IPA: /r/. Traditionally a trilled /r/. Later dialects may have pronounced it as a uvular fricative.

ש (Shin) 𐡔

IPA: /ʃ/. Represents /sh/. The Sin variant (/s/) distinction is generally absent in Aramaic.

תּ (Tav with dagesh) 𐡕

IPA: /t/. Represents the plosive /t/ as in torah.

ת (Tav without dagesh) 

IPA: /θ/. Represents the fricative /θ/ (like "th" in thin) in some dialects. Often collapsed to /t/ in later usage.

ARAMAIC VOWELS & PRONUNCIATION SYSTEM 

ַׁ Patach

• IPA: /a/

• A short “a” sound, as in father.

• Example: מַלְכָּא (malka — king)

ָ Qamats

• IPA: /aː/ (long a) or sometimes /o/

• Often overlaps with Patach in pronunciation.

ֶ Segol

• IPA: /e/

• A short “e” as in bed.

• Example: דֶּהָב (dehav — gold)

ֵ Tsere

• IPA: /eː/ (long e)

• A longer, tenser “e.” Less common in Aramaic.

ִ Hiriq

• IPA: /i/

• A short “i” sound as in machine.

• Example: דִּין (din — judgment)

ֻ Qubus

• IPA: /u/

• Short “u” as in put.

• Example: שֻׁלְחָן (shulḥan — table)

ֹ Holam

• IPA: /o/

• Long “o” as in note.

• Example: קֹדֶשׁ (qodesh — holiness)

ְ Shva

• IPA: /ə/ (neutral/very short vowel) or silent

• Appears under consonants to indicate a reduced vowel or no vowel.

• Initial: often pronounced; internal/final: often silent.

ּ Dagesh 

A dot placed inside certain letters to change their pronunciation (e.g., /b/ vs. /v/).

Hataf (Reduced) Vowels

These are ultra-short vowels used before guttural consonants to indicate a fleeting vowel sound.
They are more common in careful Tiberian manuscripts than in everyday Aramaic writing.

ֲ  Hataf Pataḥ  

IPA : /ă/

Ultra-short a sound before a guttural.
Example: חֲכִימִין (ḥăkīmīn, “wise men”).

ֱ Hataf Segol 

IPA : /ĕ/

Ultra-short e sound before a guttural.
Example: אֱמָר (ʾĕmār, “say,” alt. form).

ֳ Hataf Qamats 

IPA : /ŏ/

Ultra-short o sound before a guttural.
Example: חֳלֵם (ḥŏlēm, “dream”).