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Indigenous Australians are people with familial heritage from, or recognised membership of, the various ethnic groups living within the territory of contemporary Australia prior to British colonisation.[3][4] They consist of two distinct groups, which include many ethnic groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, including Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea, located in Melanesia. 812,728 people self-identified as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin in the 2021 Australian Census, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia. Of these Indigenous Australians, 91.4% identified as Aboriginal, 4.2% identified as Torres Strait Islander, and 4.4% identified with both groups.[5][6]

The term Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples or the person's specific cultural group, is often preferred, though the terms First Nations of Australia, First Peoples of Australia and First Australians are also increasingly common.[7][a] Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal flag and the Torres Strait Islander flag have been official flags of Australia. The time of arrival of the first human beings in Australia is a matter of debate and ongoing investigation. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, which have been dated to around 40,000 years ago,[10] although Indigenous Australians have most likely been living in Australia for upwards of 65,000 years.[11] Isolated for millennia by rising sea water after the last Ice Age, Australian Aboriginal peoples developed a variety of regional cultures and languages, invented distinct artistic and religious traditions, and affected the environment of the continent in a number of ways through hunting, fire-stick farming, and possibly the introduction of the dog. Technologies for warfare and hunting like the boomerang and spear were constructed of natural materials, as were musical instruments like the didgeridoo. Although there are a number of cultural commonalities among Indigenous Australians, there is also a great diversity among different communities.[12] The 2022 Australian census recorded 167 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages used at home by some 76,978 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.[5] At the time of European colonisation, it is estimated that there were over 250 Aboriginal languages. It is now estimated that all but 13 remaining Indigenous languages are considered endangered.[13][14] Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Indigenous languages in the phonology and grammatical structure). Around three quarters of Australian place names are of Aboriginal origin.[15]

The Indigenous population prior to European settlement was small, with estimates ranging widely from 318,000[16] to more than 3,000,000[17] in total. Given geographic and habitat conditions, they were distributed in a pattern similar to that of the current Australian population. The majority were living in the south-east, centred along the Murray River.[18] The First Fleet of British settlers arrived with instructions to "live in amity and kindness" with the Aboriginal population.[19] Nevertheless, a population collapse, principally from new infectious diseases, followed European colonisation.[20][21] A smallpox epidemic spread for three years after the arrival of Europeans. Massacres, frontier armed conflicts and competition over resources with European settlers also contributed to the decline of the Aboriginal peoples.[22][23] Numerous scholars have classified elements of the colonization process as comprising genocide against Indigenous Australians.

From the 19th to the mid-20th century, government policy removed many mixed heritage children from Aboriginal communities, with the intent to assimilate them to what had become the majority white culture. Such policy was judged "genocidal" in the Bringing Them Home report (1997) published by the government in the late 20th century, as it reviewed human rights abuses during colonisation.[24][25]

Terminology

The Australian Aboriginal flag, designed by Harold Thomas. Together with the Torres Strait Islander flag, it was proclaimed a flag of Australia in 1995.

Variations

There are a number of contemporary appropriate terms to use when referring to Indigenous peoples of Australia. In contrast to when settlers referred to them by various terms, in the 21st century there is consensus that it is important to respect the "preferences of individuals, families, or communities, and allow them to define what they are most comfortable with" when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.[7]

The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century to mean "first or earliest known, indigenous". It comes from the Latin ab (from) and origo (origin, beginning).[26] The term was used in Australia as early as 1789 to describe its Aboriginal peoples. It became capitalised and was used as the common term to refer to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Today the latter peoples are not included in this term. The term "Aborigine" (as opposed to "Aboriginal") is often disfavoured, as it is regarded as having colonialist connotations.[3][7][27]

While the term "Indigenous Australians" has grown in popularity since the 1980s,[28] many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples dislike it. They feel that it is too generic[9] and removes their distinct clan and people identity. However, many people think that the term is useful and convenient, and can be used where appropriate.[7]

In recent years[when?], terms such as "First Nations",[29] "First Peoples"[30] and "First Australians" have become more common.[7]

Being as specific as possible, for example naming the language group (such as Arrernte), or demonym relating to geographic area (such as Nunga), is preferred as a way to affirm and maintain a sense of identity.[31][32]

Terms "Black" and "Blackfella"

European colonials from their early settlement used the term "Black" to refer to Aboriginal Australians.[33] While the term originally related to skin colour and was often used pejoratively,[7] today the term is used to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general. It refers to any people of such heritage regardless of their level of skin pigmentation.[34]

In the 1970s, with a rise in Aboriginal activism, leaders such as Gary Foley proudly embraced the term "Black". For example, writer Kevin Gilbert's book of that time was entitled Living Black. The book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community, including Robert Jabanungga, who reflected on contemporary Aboriginal culture.[35] Living Black is also the name of an Australian TV news and current affairs program covering "issues affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians".[36] It is presented and produced by Karla Grant, an Arrernte woman.[37]

Use of the term "Black" varies depending on context, and its use may be deemed inappropriate.[7] Furthermore, the term sometimes causes confusion as it can refer not only to Indigenous Australians, but also to other groups such as African Australians. A related cause of confusion is the fact that the term can be used to refer to a particular group, such as Indigenous Australians, or it can be used inclusively to refer to all Black people.[38]

A significant number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people use the term "Blackfella" and its associated forms to refer to Aboriginal Australians.[7][39][40]

"Blak"